LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


HOME  SANITATION: 


MANUAL  FOR  HOUSEKEEPERS. 

BY    THE 

SANITARY   SCIENCE  CLUB 
OF  THE  ASSOCIATION  OP   COLLEGIATE  ALUMNU, 

REVISED    EDITION. 


OF  THI 


PUBLISHED   BY 

WHITCOMB   &   BARROWS 

HUNTINGTON    CHAMBERS,   BOSTON,   MASS. 
1904 


LIBRARY 


CA 


72) 


Copyright,  1887 
BY  TICKNOR  AND  COMPANY 


Copyright,  1898 
BY  ELLEN  H.   RICHARDS 

AND 

MARION  TALBOT 


All  rights  reserved 


PREFACE. 


'THHE  Sanitary  Science  Club  of  the  Association  of  Col- 
legiate  Alumnae  was  organized  in  November,  1883, 
for  the  study  of  home  sanitation.  Two  years  were  de- 
voted to  general  study  and  research  before  any  attempt  was 
made  to  extend  the  work  beyond  the  limits  of  the  club. 
Since  that  time  the  material  now  presented  has  gradually 
taken  form.  The  questions  have  been  practically  tested 
by  the  members  of  the  club  in  their  own  homes  and  by 
other  housekeepers.  The  questions  have  also  been  adopted 
as  the  basis  of  a  course  in  sanitary  science  offered  by  the 
Society  to  Encourage  Studies  at  Home.  The  practical 
sanitary  work  accomplished  by  the  club,  both  for  them- 
selves and  for  others,  cannot  be  mentioned  in  detail. 
But  as  an  encouragement  to  the  formation  of  similar 
clubs,  and  to  the  study  of  the  subject,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  expenditure  of  time  and  effort  has  been  amply  repaid 
by  positive  and  satisfactory  results. 

Since  its  organization  the  membership  of  the  club   has 

144136 


4  PREFACE. 

undergone  several  changes.  The  present  active  members 
desire  to  express  their  indebtedness  to  their  former  associates 
for  much  of  the  preliminary  work,  without  which  this  little 
book  could  not  have  been  made. 

ANNIE  E.  ALLEN, 
ALICE  STONE  BLACKWELL, 
SARAH  LOUISE  DAY, 
ALLA  W.  FOSTER, 
EDITH  TALBOT  JACKSON, 
ALICE  PELOUBET  NORTON, 
(ELLEN  H.  RICHARDS, 


Editors,  . 

(MARION  TALBOT. 


BOSTON,  June  i,  1887. 


EDITORS'   NOTE. 

In  revising  this  little  volume  the  chapters  on  food  and 
clothing  have  been  omitted  and  those  on  the  country  house 
and  sanitary  precautions  substituted.  It  is  thus  confined 
more  strictly  to  House  Sanitation,  while  the  daily  care  and 
the  conditions  comprehended  under  the  term  Home  Science 
are  left  to  be  treated  fully  in  another  place. 

The  editors  have  received  helpful  suggestions  from  Mrs. 
Alice  Peloubet  Norton,  Miss  S.  Maria  Elliott,  and  Miss 
Henrietta  I.  Goodrich. 

OCTOBER  i,  1898. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

Introductory       .        .        .        .        *      .< 


CHAPTER  II. 

Situation  of  the  House  and  Care  of  the  Cellar        .        •        .  10 

Questions  ......        .        •        •         •        •  12 

CHAPTER  IIL 

Drainage  and  Plumbing    ........  15 

Questions 19 

CHAPTER  IV. 

Ventilation 31 

Questions 33 

CHAPTER  V. 

Heating 37 

Questions 42 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Lighting 46 

Questions 50 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

PACK 

Furnishing          ..........  52 

Questions .        .        .  55 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

The  Country  House  .         .        .        .     .  .        ....  59 

House  Inspection       .        ...       ......        .        .  63 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Sanitary  Precautions           .        .        .        :«        .        .        •        »  65 

Questions 68 

CHAPTER  X. 

Sanitary  Work  for  Women         .         .                 ;        .        .         .  71 

LIST  OF  BOOKS  OF  REFERENCE 77 

INDEX                 81 


HOME 


CHAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

THE  hygiene  of  the  home  is  a  subject  of  growing  im- 
portance and  interest.  As  one  of  the  problems  of 
social  and  economic  science  it  is  beginning  to  receive  the 
attention  it  may  rightly  claim.  The  women  of  our  country 
should  not  only  follow  the  discussions  which  are  carried 
on  by  sanitary  congresses,  boards  of  health,  and  other 
authorities,  but,  by  combining  theory  with  practice,  as  few 
others  can,  they  should  aid  in  solving  the  great  questions 
which  seriously  affect  the  interests  of  the  home  and  the  family. 

The  object  of  this  manual  is  to  arouse  the  interest  of 
housekeepers  in  the  sanitary  conditions  of  their  homes. 
The  questions  are  so  framed  that  an  affirmative  answer 
implies  a  satisfactoty  arrangement,  while  the  question  itself 
suggests  a  remedy,  if  the  answer  is  negative. 

In  thus  pointing  out  the  sources  of  danger,  and  the  ideal 
standards  of  sanitation  in  the  perfectly  healthful  house,  the 
compilers  do  not  intend  unnecessarily  to  alarm  or  discourage 
the  householder.  It  is  their  aim  to  urge  the  intelligent  over- 
sight of  these  matters,  and  to  indicate  the  points  requiring 
investigation,  the  methods  of  examination,  and  the  practical 
remedies. 


$  HOME  SANITATION. 

The  conditions  required  under  the  two  topics  (Situation 
and  Drainage)  which  open  the  subject  may  seem  as  difficult 
of  realization,  especially  to  those  already  settled  in  their 
homes,  as  they  are  important.  But  while  the  suggestions 
*would  be  of  greater  value  to  those  considering  the  choice  of 
a  residence,  yet  it  is  believed  that  they  will  show  to  those 
-who  assume  the  conditions  of  their  houses  to  be  beyond 
their  control  that  the  remedy  frequently  lies  within  their 
reach.  The  second  topic  (Drainage)  is  necessarily  some- 
what technical ;  but  it  is  hoped  that  the  explanations  in 
the  notes  will  prove  the  difficulties  to  be  more  apparent 
than  real,  and  that  the  principles  can  be  easily  under- 
stood. 

It  is  unavoidable  that  some  of  the  points,  in  a  subject 
so  full  of  detail,  should  appear  in  themselves  trivial,  and 
the  risk  to  health,  incurred  in  ignoring  them,  very  slight; 
but  the  sum  of  such  trifles  often  makes  the  difference  be- 
tween physical  vigor  and  weakness,  and  the  risk,  small  as  it 
is,  is  greater  and  more  serious  than  that  from  fire,  against 
Which  the  householder  always  insures  himself. 
,  One  of  the  most  dangerous  qualities  of  the  unsanitary 
house  is  that  it  does  not  always  and  at  once  produce  a  definite 
and  virulent  disease,  such  as  typhoid  fever  or  diphtheria, 
though  such  is  often  its  result ;  but,  without  doubt,  it  slowly 
and  insidiously  causes  ill-health  and  general  languor,  which 
incapacitate  for  sustained  effort,  and  to  which  women,  from 
their  greater  confinement  to  the  house,  are  especially  sub- 
ject. 

In  conclusion,  the  householder  must  be  reminded  that  it 

is  not  enough  to  secure  right  sanitary  conditions ;  they  must 

be  maintained.     This  can  be  done  best  through  the  eternal 

*  vigilance  of  the  housekeeper,  who  can  thus,  in  large  measure, 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

secure  the  two  essentials  of  a  happy  home,  —  good  health 
and  its  attendant,  good-nature. 

The  following  motto  should  be  the  basis  of  her  efforts  :  — 
u  Any  invention  intended  to  be  a  substitute  for  watchful- 
ness will  prove  a  delusion  and  a  snare." 

The  purchaser  of  a  house  demands  and  is  willing  to  pay  for  ob- 
taining a  clear  legal  title  to  the  property ;  there  should  be  the  same 
demand  and  willingness  to  pay  for  a  clear  sanitary  title,  /.<?.,  that 
the  house,  in  all  respects,  conforms  to  the  best  known  laws  of 
sanitation.  A  purchaser  or  tenant  should  have  as  perfect  a  guaranty 
of  the  latter  as  of  the  former. 

The  time  must  come  soon  when,  in  order  to  sell  or  let  houses,  the 
owners  or  agents  will  be  required  to  show  a  certificate  secured 
through  expert  examination  regarding  the  perfect  sanitary  condition 
of  each  house.  Already  some  wise  landlords  show  such  certifi- 
cates. In  general,  however,  the  purchaser  or  tenant  must  look  out 
for  this  himself,  remembering  that  all  expense  incurred  is  for  the 
safety,  health,  and  possibly  the  lives  of  his  family  and  himself. 

Wherever  there  is  a  Board  of  Health,  an  Inspector  of  Buildings, 
or  a  Board  of  Examiners,  they  may  be  consulted  as  to  the  laws  of 
that  town  or  city,  since  as  yet  there  is  little  uniformity  as  to  details. 
But,  because  the  members  of  these  Boards  are  not  always  them- 
selves experts,  and  because  the  standard  of  public  opinion  does  not 
as  yet  demand  that  they  shall  be,  full  reliance  cannot,  in  all  cases, 
be  placed  upon  inspection  by  public  authorities. 

In  houses  already  occupied,  the  heating  and  plumbing  systems 
should  be  closely  watched.  If  defect  is  suspected,  any  person  in 
the  house  may  make  a  complaint  to  the  Board  of  Health  and 
inspection  will  be  made  without  expense. 

Given  a  house  in  perfect  sanitary  condition  at  the  start,  the 
housewife  should  know  what  is  required  to  keep  it  in  like  condition, 
Barring  accidents,  cleanness  and  pure  air  will  usually  ensure  a  con- 
dition of  safety.  She  should  then  know  what  accidents  are  liable  to 
happen  and  how  to  keep  the  entire  house  clean.  The  object  of  the 
following  chapters  is  to  give  her  this  knowledge. 


HOME  SANITATION, 


CHAPTER  II. 

SITUATION  OF  THE  HOUSE  AND  CARE  OF  THE  CELLAR. 

THE  location  and  surroundings  of  the  house  are  of  the 
first  importance  from  a  sanitary  stand -point.  Folding- 
doors  and  carved  mantel-pieces  are  attractive  to  the  house- 
hunter ;  but  the  satisfaction  they  give  may  be  more  than 
offset  by  the  bad  effects  of  a  neighboring  marsh,  a  wet 
cellar,  or  a  lack  of  sunshine.  As  W.  P.  Gerhard  well  says  : 
"It  must  be  constantly  borne  in  mind  that,  while  defective 
construction  may  generally  be  remedied,  unhealthy  sur- 
roundings, an  undesirable  aspect,  or  insalubrious  building 
site  cannot  be  changed." 

The  chief  essentials  to  be  secured  are  pure  air,  sunlight, 
and  dryness.  These  are  conditions  upon  which  physical 
and  mental  vigor  largely  depend.  Without  them  the 
human  system  loses  its  power  of  resistance  to  disease. 
Rheumatism  and  consumption  are  diseases  which  are 
peculiarly  prevalent  under  such  conditions.  Moreover, 
many  forms  of  organic  life,  known  familiarly  to  us  in  the 
form  of  decay  and  mold,  thrive  only  in  dampness  and 
darkness. 

As  to  the  first  of  these  essentials,  pure  air,  we  must  con- 
sider not  only  the  condition  of  the  air  above  ground,  but 
also  the  state  of  the  air  which  circulates  in  the  ground.  We 
usually  think  of  air  as  only  above  ground,  not  as  moving 
about  in  it,  and  seldom  realize  how  great  the  amount  of 
ground-air  is  until  we  try  the  simple  experiment  of  pour- 
ing water  into  a  potful  of  dry  earth,  and  notice  how  much 
water  the  earth  will  absorb  in  the  space  before  occupied 
by  air. 


SITUATION   OF  HOUSE  —  CARE  OF  CELLAR.         II 

The  ground-air  is  more  dangerous  than  the  free  atmos- 
phere because  it  is  more  apt  to  be  the  carrier  of  foul  gases 
and  an  undue  amount  of  moisture.  Moreover,  the  materi- 
als ordinarily  used  for  the  construction  of  cellar  walls  are 
more  pervious  to  moisture  and  air  than  is  generally  sup- 
posed. Dry  brick,  for  example,  is  so  porous  that  it  can 
take  up  about  25%  of  its  weight  of  water,  and  even  the 
finest  grain  stones  absorb  some  moisture.  The  following 
questions  suggest  methods  of  keeping  dampness  and  ground- 
air  out  of  the  cellar. 

The  reader  may  exclaim,  u  Why,  you  would  be  more  par- 
ticular about  the  cellar  than  the  parlor !  "  and  she  would  not 
be  far  from  right.  The  day  has  not  passed  when  a  contem- 
plated visit  to  a  cellar  is,  in  many  cases,  a  cause  of  some 
trepidation  and  alarm.  There  are  the  breakneck  stairs  to 
grope  down,  and  some  calculation  is  needed  to  land  in  safety 
on  the  board  floating  about  at  the  bottom.  A  few  steps 
farther  and  the  intruder  may  knock  her  head  against  a 
hanging  shelf,  covered  with  an  accumulation  of  fragments 
of  food.  She  decides  that  a  little  fresh  air  would  be  desir- 
able. She  makes  her  way  toward  one  of  the  narrow  win- 
dows through  whose  covering  of  cobwebs  and  dust  a  few 
rays  of  light  straggle.  The  first  attempt  to  open  a  window 
is  a  failure,  for  the  coal-bin  forms  an  impassable  barrier ; 
and  the  second  window  is  as  inaccessible,  because  of  the  row 
of  old  barrels,  filled  with  decaying  vegetables  and  house- 
hold rubbish,  which  are  placed  against  the  cellar  wall. 
The  only  other  inlet  for  fresh  air  is  the  cellar  door,  which 
is  too  heavy  to  lift,  and  the  visitor  is  forced  to  retreat  with- 
out fulfilling  her  good  resolve. 

For  the  reverse  of  this  picture,  we  may  refer  to  the  cellar 
which  is  not  only  sanitarily  ideal  but  practically  possible. 


12  HOME   SANITATION. 

It  is  as  light  and  dry  and  clean  as  any  room  in  the  house. 
The  windows  are  large,  are  on  different  sides,  and  can  be 
opened  easily.  The  walls  are  free  from  dust  and  cobwebs, 
and  look  quite  attractive  in  their  coat  of  whitewash.  The 
sweetness  and  purity  of  the  air  are  not  only  a  satisfaction  to 
the  good  housekeeper  when  she  inspects  her  cellar,  but  they 
have  much  to  do  with  the  well-being  of  the  family. 

Much  of  the  air  which  enters  the  different  rooms  of  the 
house  comes  from  the  cellar.  A  heated  house  acts  like  a 
chimney.  Not  only  does  it  draw  in  air  from  the  ground 
through  the  cellar  walls  and  floor,  unless  they  are  made 
impervious,  but  the  movement  of  air  is  from  the  bottom 
upwards,  and  the  air  of  the  cellar  makes  its  way  into  every 
part  of  the  house.  A  German  experimenter  proved  that 
one  half  of  the  cellar-air  made  its  way  into  the  first  story, 
one  third  into  the  second,  and  one  fifth  into  the  third.  The 
upward  movement  of  air  is  shown  frequently  by  ceilings. 
The  dark  streaks  are  formed  by  the  deposit  of  dust  from  the 
air  which  passes  through  the  plastering. 

These  facts  prove  the  necessity  of  especially  considering 
the  cellar  in  its  function  of  a  reservoir  of  air  for  the  whole 
house  ;  and  it  will  be  readily  agreed  that  there  is  little  use 
in  adopting  special  methods  of  ventilation  for  the  living- 
rooms  and  sleeping-rooms,  if  foul  air  is  allowed  constantly 
to  rise  from  the  cellar.  Therefore,  during  most  of  the  year 
there  should  be  a  free  circulation  of  air  through  screened 
open  windows.  In  very  hot  summer  days  the  windows 
should  be  closed  during  the  day  to  prevent  the  deposit  of 
moisture  upon  the  walls. 

QUESTIONS. 

i.  When  you  selected  your  house  did  you  make  sure 
that  it  was  in  a  healthful  locality  as  well  as  in  a  convenient 
and  fashionable  one? 


SITUATION  OF   HOUSE  —  CARE   OF   CELLAR.         13 

2.  If  the  house  is  situated  on  rising  ground,  is  the  surface- 
water  (from    rains)   carried   away  on    all    sides    by    either 
natural  or  artificial  drains? 

3.  If  the  ground  is  level,  are  there  under-drains  carrying 
away  the  rain-water  ? 

4.  If  the  soil  is  sandy  and  porous,  are  special  pains  taken 
to  exclude  contaminations  from  drains,  cesspools,  leaky  gas- 
pipes,  etc.  ? 

5.  If  the  soil  is  clayey  and  compact,  is  there  special  pro- 
vision for  drainage  ? 

6.  Is  there  a  distance  of  at  least   200  feet  between  the 
house  and  any  source  of  contamination  of  the  air,  such  as 
any  opening  of  a  sink,  or  other  drain  ;  any  deposit  of  decay- 
ing material ;  any  marshy  spot,  low  river  bank,  or  pool  of 
stagnant  water? 

7.  Are  the  first  floor  beams  of  the  house  laid  upon  stone 
or  brick  foundations,  three  to  six  feet  above  the  ground  ? 

Note.  —  Only  about  half  the  height  of  the  cellar  is  then 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 

8.  Is  there  a  cellar  or  ventilated   air-space    under   the 
whole  house? 

9.  Is  there  a  light  and  dry  room   (either  under  a   car- 
riage-house or  other  building,  or  walled  ofF  from  the  main 
cellar   and  with  a  separate    entrance),  in  which  all  vege- 
tables and  other  perishable  articles  are  stored? 

10.  Is  the  cellar  perfectly  dry  at  all  seasons  of  the  year? 

11.  If  not,  are  special  drains  laid  under  the  cellar  floor? 

1 2.  Are  the  floors  and  sides  made  impervious  by  cement, 
asphalt,  concrete,  or  other  means? 

13.  Is  the  cellar  thoroughly  cleaned    and  whitewashed 
with  lime  every  spring? 

14.  Has  the  cellar  several  windows  on  opposite  sides,  if 
possible,  so  that  it  is  light  and  well  aired  ? 


14  HOME   SANITATION. 

15.  Is  care  taken  to  keep  the  ground  outside  the  cellar 
windows  free  from  any  contamination? 

1 6.  Are  these  windows  accessible? 

17.  Is  the  cellar  lathed  and  plastered  overhead? 

18.  Is  the  coal-cellar  a  light  and  dry  place  ? 

Note.  —  The  decomposition  of  the  sulphides  in  the  coal 
goes  on  much  more  rapidly  in  a  damp  atmosphere.  Sul- 
phides cause  silver  to  tarnish. 

19.  Do  the  living-rooms  and  sleeping-rooms  have  the 
sunshine  a  good  part  of  the  day? 

Note.  —  Shade-trees  often  surround  the  house  too  closely 
and  prevent  the  entrance  of  sunlight,  the  circulation  of  fresh 
air,  and  the  consequent  evaporation  of  moisture. 

20.  Are  all  the  sleeping-rooms  above  the  first  floor? 

21.  Are  there  windows  on  two  sides  of  every  room,  or 
suite  of  rooms,  or  some  other  efficient  means  of  producing 
a  strong  current  of  air  when  needed  ? 

Chiefly  applicable  to  a  city  house :  — 

22.  Is  the  street  pavement  usually  clean  and  dry? 

23.  Are  the  gutters  clean,  and  does  the  water  run  freely 
from  them  to  the  drain  ? 

24.  If  the  lot  is  on  made  land  — 

(a)  Have  you  consulted  old  topographical  maps,  in 
order  to  learn  the  original  character  of  the  soil,  and  direc- 
tion of  the  water-courses  ? 

(3)  Was  the  site  well  drained  before  the  process  of 
filling-in  was  begun? 

(c)  Does  the  soil  consist  of  gravel,  sand,  or  loam,  not  a 
mixture  of  ashes,  street-sweepings,  and  house-refuse? 

(d)  Have  some  years  passed  since  the  lot  was  filled  in? 

25.  Is   the  back-yard    provided  with   a    drain   for    rain 
water,  and  is  the  drain  easy  of  access  for  cleaning? 


DRAINAGE  AND  PLUMBING.  1 5 


CHAPTER  III. 

DRAINAGE   AND   PLUMBING. 

IT  may  be  confessed,  frankly,  at  the  outset,  that  drainage 
and  plumbing  present  some  of  the  most  intricate  prob- 
lems with  which  the  housekeeper  has  to  deal ;  but,  for  the 
encouragement  of  the  reader,  it  may  be  said  that  they  are 
like  most  tangled  skeins,  —  after  the  first  few  knots  are  care- 
fully disentangled  the  rest  of  the  difficulties  vanish  almost 
of  themselves.  Moreover,  there  is  a  special  inducement  to 
make  a  little  extra  effort ;  for  from  defects  in  this  department 
by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  most  serious  and  immediate 
dangers  to  life  and  health  in  the  household  arise.  In  many 
instances  these  can  be  averted,  without  expense  or  even  tech- 
nical skill,  by  intelligent  oversight  and  a  knowledge  of  what 
defects  to  look  for,  how  to  find  them,  and  how  to  remedy 
them. 

When  an  expert  is  really  needed  a  little  knowledge  en- 
ables one  to  recognize  the  fact  in  season  to  save  the  heavy 
penalty  of  illness  or  expensive  repairs  which  delay  often 
involves.  In  no  department  of  household  economy  are  the 
old  adages  about  the  ounce  of  prevention  and  the  stitch  in 
time  more  valuable.  These  questions  aim  to  save  the 
pound  of  cure,  and  avert  the  nine  stitches.  They  do  not  aim 
to  supplant  the  mechanic  or  engineer,  or  to  supply  the  place 
of  a  scientific  treatise. 

They  are  based  upon  the  principles  state]  by  Rogers 
Field  as  the  three  canons  of  house-drainage :  -^  . 


1 6  HOME  SANITATION. 

1 .  All  refuse  matters  must  be  completely  and  rapidly  re- 
moved. 

2.  No  passage  of  air  can  be  allowed  to  take  place  from 
drain  or  waste-pipes  into  houses. 

3.  No  communication  can  be  permitted  to  occur  between 
the  drains  and  the  water-supply. 

In  two  ways  these  questions  are  designed  to  be  especially 
helpful. 

First.  To  enable  those  selecting  a  house  to  judge  of  its 
sanitary  condition.  It  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  in  this 
connection  that  every  inch  of  pipe,  every  cesspool,  every 
drain  and  joint  and  trap,  must  be  seen  and  tested.  If  they 
are  so  imbedded  in  wood-work,  walls,  floors,  or  ground,  as 
to  make  this  impossible,  that  fact  is,  in  itself,  condemnation 
enough.  Such  concealment  makes  two  evils  certain,  even 
if  everything  else  is  all  right  at  the  time,  (i.)  Because  of  the 
trouble  or  even  practical  impossibility  attending  inspection, 
there  will  not  be  the  thorough  and  periodical  examina- 
tion of  the  whole  drainage  system  which  safety  requires 
just  as  much  as  in  the  case  of  the  steam-boiler.  (2.)  A 
leakage  or  break  is  liable  not  to  be  discovered  until  it  has 
produced  serious  or  possibly  fatal  disease ;  and  then  there 
is  often  delay,  and,  eventually,  the  partial  demolition  of 
floors  and  walls  in  order  to  get  at  the  root  of  the  trouble. 

Second.  To  aid  those  in  charge  of  a  household  to  main- 
tain healthful  conditions.  The  larger  the  staff  of  servants, 
and  the  more  complicated  the  drainage  system,  the  more 
necessaiy  is  intelligent  supervision.  When  the  mistress  has 
little  realization  of  the  importance  of  sanitary  precautions 
it  is  scarcely  to  be  expected  that  even  the  most  crusty  ser- 
vants will  display  greater  interest,  foresight,  and  intelligence 
in  the  daily  care  of  the  house.  It  is  difficult  to  say  whether 


DRAINAGE  AND   PLUMBING.  1 7 

it  is  more  necessary  to  start  right  in  the  beginning  with 
simple  and  efficient  drainage,  or  to  keep  it  in  g<  od  condition 
by  watchful,  constant  attention.  The  importance  of  apparent 
trifles  must  be  felt,  and  careful  regard  paid  to  them.  The 
single  match  or  banana-peel  in  the  closet,  the  lock  of  hair 
in  the  washbowl,  maybe  the  source  of  serious  and  expensive1 
trouble. 

It  will  aid  in  the  most  intelligent  use  of  the  questions  if 
some  simple  descriptive  manual  be  read  in  connection  with 
them  to  serve  for  further  explanation  and  illustration. 

The  question  of  the  disposal  of  sewage  outside  the  imme- 
diate premises  is  beyond  the  control  of  the  individual,  and, 
therefore,  not  within  the  scope  of  this  book.  The  disposal 
of  sewage  where  there  is  no  water-carriage  system  has  been 
touched  upon  by  a  few  leading  questions  ;  but  any  elabora- 
tion of  the  practical  application  of  the  methods  suggested 
should  be  sought  in  some  treatise  devoted  to  the  subject. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  quote  from  Mr.  J.  Pickering  Put- 
nam a  few  general  principles  of  universal  application  which 
might  be  called  The  Ten  Rules  of  Sanitary  Drainage  :  — 


1.  Simplicity. 

2.  Accessibility. 

3.  Soundness  of  material. 

4.  Tightness  of  joints. 

5.  Ventilation. 

6.  Thorough  flushing. 


7.  Avoidance  of  mechani- 

cal contrivances. 

8.  Automatic  operation. 

9.  Economy  of  water. 
10,     Noiselessness. 


TRAP. 


DRAINAGE  AND   PLUMBING.  19 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Have  you  a  plan  of  the  system   of  pipes   in  your 
house  ?     (See  W.  P.  Gerhard's  diagram  on  preceding  page. ) 

2.  Is  all  the  plumbing- work  exposed  to  view,  or  easily 
accessible? 

3.  Are  the  fixtures  on  the  different  floors  placed  over 
each  other  so  as  to  avoid  horizontal  soil  and  waste  pipes? 

Note  I.  Fixtures  include  water-closets,  washbowls,  tubs, 
sinks,  etc. 

Note  II.  —  The  soil-pipe  conveys  the  contents  of  water- 
closets  and  urinals  to  the  house-drain.  It  may  also  receive 
the  contents  of  waste-pipes.  The  'waste-pipes  carry  other 
refuse  fluids,  as  of  tubs,  sinks,  washbowls,  etc.,  only. 
These  pipes  may  discharge  either  directly  into  the  house- 
drain,  or  into  the  soil-pipe.  The  house-drain  is  the  pipe 
which  receives  the  contents  of  the  soil  and  waste  pipes,  and 
conveys  them  outside  the  house.  It  is  nearly  horizontal, 
with  an  inclination  of  at  least  one  in  fifty,  while  the  soil- 
pipe  should  be  vertical. 

4.  Are  all  the  pipes  air-tight  as  shown  by  the  pepper- 
mint or  other  reliable  test? 

Note.  —  Pour  two  ounces  of  oil  of  peppermint  into  the 
soil-pipe  at  its  mouth  above  the  roof,  if  it  is  accessible,  or 
into  the  basin  or  water-closet  nearest  the  roof,  first  closing 
the  vent-pipes  which  appear  above  the  roof.  Pour  in, 
immediately  after,  a  pailful  of  hot  water  ;  if  the  odor  of  pep- 
permint is  perceived,  at  any  lower  fixture,  it  is  an  indication 
that  there  is  an  opening  in  some  pipe  through  which  foul 
air  may  escape.  The  peppermint  should  be  kept  outside 
the  house  until  needed,  and  the  person  who  pours  it  in 
should  remain  on  the  roof,  or  in  the  room  with  closed 


2O  HOME   SANITATION. 

doors,  until  the  examination  of  the  fixtures  below  has  been 
made  by  assistants  ;  otherwise,  the  odor  will  come  from 
the  bottle,  or  the  clothing  of  the  person,  and  spoil  the 
test. 

Oil  of  peppermint  is  sold  for  the  purpose  in  2-ounce 
vials,  hermetically  sealed. 

5.  Is   the   continuation   of  the   house-drain   outside  the 
house  to  the  sewer  or  cesspool  properly  laid,  i.e.  — 

(a)  Are  the  pipes  of  small  size,  not  more  than  five 
inches  in  diameter,  in  order  that  they  may  be  thoroughly 
scoured  by  the  rush  of  water  ? 

(6)  Are  they  laid  with  a  continuous  grade  of  at  least  one 
in  fifty? 

(c)    Have  they  tight  joints  ? 

6.  If  this  outside  drain  is  in  made  ground,  or  quicksand, 
or  near  trees,  or  a  well  used  for  drinking,  is  it  made  of  iron  ? 
If  otherwise,    if  not   of  iron,  is  it   of  earthenware,  with 
cemented  joints? 

7.  Is  there  a  trap  on  the  house-drain,  near  the  cellar  wall, 
to  prevent  the  entrance  of  foul  air  from  the  sewer? 

(a)  Has  this  trap  a  cleaning-hole  so  that  it  can  be 
reached  and  cleaned? 

(3)  Is  care  taken  to  close  the  cover  of  this  cleaning-hole 
perfectly  air-tight  after  each  examination  ? 

Note.  — A  trap  is  a  bend  in  a  pipe,  with  or  without  an 
enlargement,  which  retains  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  water 
that  passes  through  it,  to  prevent  the  passage  of  foul  air 
back  through  the  pipe,  and  into  the  room.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  traps.  The  S  trap,  Fig.  136,  and  the  bottle- 
trap,  Fig.  139,  are  in  common  use. 

The  water  standing  in  the  trap  is  called  the  seal.  It  is 
effective  when  it  stands  at  least  one  inch  above  the  bend  in 


DRAINAGE  AND    PLUMBING. 


21 


the  pipe.  If  it  stands  lower  space  is  left  above  the  water 
for  the  passage  of  foul  air  back  through  the  pipe,  and  the 
seal  is  "  broken,"  as  in  Fig.  137. 


Fig.  136. 


Fig.  (37. 


Fig.  139. 

A  trap,  to  be  effective,  must  be  of  such  a  size  and  shape 
that   it  will   be   self-cleansing.      If  the 
^^•**^      water-seal  is  too  deep,  solid  matter  will 
j  \     not  all  be  carried  out  of  the  trap. 

I     j  8.    Is  there  a  pipe  for  the    admission 

j     j  of  out-door  air  on  the  house  side  of  this 

trap?    (Question  7.) 

Note.  —  Air  admitted  here  will  pass 
up  through  the  house-drain  and  main 
soil-pipe,  diluting  and  carrying  off  at  the  roof  the  foul  air 
in  these  pipes. 

(a)  Is  the  opening  of  this  pipe  at  least  ten  feet  from  a 
window,  door,  or  the  cold-air  supply  of  any  heating  appa- 
ratus, lest  a  counter-current  should  carry  the  foul  air  back 
through  the  fresh-air  pipe  ? 

(b)  Is   the  fresh-air  inlet  at  least  as  large  as  the  drain, 
four  inches  in  diameter? 

(c)  Is  its  opening  protected  from  obstructions? 

9.   Is  the  house-drain  carried  in  full  sight  along  the  face 
of  the  cellar-wall,  or  suspended  from  the  cellar-ceiling? 


22  HOME   SANITATION. 

Note.  —  If  there  are  fixtures  necessitating  the  laying  of 
the  pipe  at  a  lower  level  than  the  cellar,  the  drain  should 
be  laid  in  a  mason-work  trench  (or  on  special  foundations, 
in  filled-in  land),  under  the  cellar-floor,  with  movable 
covers,  that  leakage  in  the  joints  of  this  important  pipe 
may  be  surely  and  quickly  detected. 

10.  Is  the  drain  protected  from  the  settling  of  the  cellar- 
walls  by  an  opening,  arched  or  crossed  with  a  long  stone 
where  it  passes  through  them? 

11.  Is  the  soil-pipe  — 

(a)    As  small  as  four  inches  in  diameter? 

(<$)  Carried  in  a  straight  line  at  least  two  feet  above  the 
roof  for  ventilation,  with  its  opening  away  from  windows, 
chimney-flues,  and  fresh-air  ventilators? 

(c)  Protected  at  its  opening  by  a  wire-screen  from  the 
entrance  of  leaves  and  other  obstructions  ? 

(cT)  Made  of  cast-iron  with  calked  lead  joints,  and  coated 
inside  and  outside  with  asphalt  or  some  equivalent  sub- 
stance ? 

12.  Do  the  branch  waste-pipes  connect  by  a  Y  branch 
and  J/b-'m.  bend  with  the  soil-pipe? 

Note.  — AY  branch  is  so  named  from  its  shape. 

13.  Has  each  water-closet,  washbowl,  bath-tub,  sink,  set 
of  laundry  tubs,  etc.,  a  separate  trap,  and  one  only? 

Note.  —  If  a  fixture  has  two  traps,  or  if  there  are  two 
traps  on  the  same  length  of  pipe,  the  air  between  them  may 
be  so  compressed  that  it  will  force  its  way  through  the  trap 
having  the  shallower  water-seal.  This  is  the  cause  of  the 
irregular  gurgling  sound  sometimes  heard.  It  may  be 
remedied  by  removing  one  trap,  or  by  connecting  the  crown 
of  one  of  the  traps  with  a  ventilating-pipe,  as  is  now  usually 
done  with  all  traps. 


DRAINAGE  AND    PLUMBING. 


14.  Are  the  fixtures  as  free  from  woodwork  in  the  form 
of  casings,  etc.,  as  possible? 

(a)  If  not,  can  the  woodwork  concealing  them  be  easily 
removed,  and  is  it  frequently  removed  for  the  examination 
and  cleaning  of  the  fixtures? 

15.  Does  each  water-closet  have  a  sufficient  supply  of 
water,  discharged  with  enough  force  when   emptied,  com- 
pletely to  scour  the  traps  and  branch  waste-pipes,  i.e.)  two 
or  three  gallons  to  each  closet  at  each  flushing? 

1  6.  Are  all  objects  excluded  from  the 
water-closet  which  are  likely  to  obstruct 
the  pipes,  such  as  hair,  strings,  rags, 
china,  glass,  or  anything  not  quickly 
and  easily  dissolved  ?  Note.  —  See  cut. 

1  7.  Are  the  water-closets  flushed  with 
water  from  a  special  cistern  used  for  that 
purpose  alone,  and  never  as  a  supply 
for  drinking  or  cooking,  or  for  the  hot- 
water  system  ? 

18.  When  a  fixture  is  not  to  be  used  for  some  time  is  the 
evaporation  of  water  in  its  trap,  which  would  destroy  the 
seal  and  admit  foul  air  to  the  house,  prevented  by  pouring 
down  oil,  so  as  to  cover  the  water  in  the  trap,  or  is  the 
water  replaced  by  glycerine  ? 

19.  Are  all  stationary  lavatories  excluded  from  sleeping 
apartments,  unless  special  precautions  are  taken  ? 

20.  Are  concealed  overflow-pipes  avoid- 
ed, and  standing  overflow  -pipes  or  some 
substitute  used  ?  If  the  overflow-pipes  (a) 
are  concealed,  are  they  frequently  flushed 
with  clean  water?  Do  they  connect  with 
the  waste-pipe  between  the  bowl  and  trap 


k  UNIVERSITY 


HOME   SANITATION. 


21.  Is  siphonage  of  traps  guarded  against  by  venti- 
lating-pipes,  pot-traps,  or  mechanical  traps? 

Note.  —  When  a  body  of  water  with  considerable  mo- 
mentum is  discharged  into  a  pipe  (as  in  emptying  a  pail  of 
slops  or  flushing  a  water-closet)  it  drags  air  along  with  it, 
and  partially  exhausts  the  air  in  all  the  branch  pipes.  The 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  outside  the  pipe,  upon  the  water 
in  the  trap,  will  then  be  greater  than  that  from  inside  the 
pipe,  and  the  water  in  the  trap  will  be  forced  down  into 
the  pipe,  until  the  water-seal  is  broken,  and  space  left  for 
the  passage  of  foul  air  up  into  the  room. 

The  vent-pipe  is  an  air-pipe  attached  to 
the  highest  part  of  the  bend  in  the  trap,  on 
the  sewer  side  of  the  water-seal,  thus 
affording  free  admission  of  air  to  the  inside 
of  the  pipe,  to  balance  the  pressure  of  the 
atmosphere  outside  and  preserve  the  water- 
seal,  when  the  air  in  the  branch  waste- 
pipes  has  been  swept  away  by  a  dis- 
charge of  water.  The  opening  sometimes 
becomes  clogged,  as  in  the  cut  C. 

Vent-pipes  are  usually  required  by 
plumbing  laws. 

A  pot-trap  is  one  like  Fig.  139  (Question 
7,  note) ,  with  a  chamber  large  enough 
to  hold  a  deep  water-seal  which  can- 
not be  easily  broken.     A  small  pot- 
trap  will  not  resist  siphonage,  but  a 
large  one  will.     These  traps,  how- 
ever, retain  filth,  and  are  liable  to 
clog.     (See  cut  D.) 

Mechanical  traps  are  those  hav- 
ing, in  addition  to  the   water-seal, 


C. 


DRAINAGE  AND    PLUMBING. 


some  mechanical  contrivance,  as  valve,  ball,  flap,  etc.  They 
are  liable,  from  their  complicated  construction,  to  get  out  of 
order ;  they  are  not  self-cleansing,  and  accumulate  deposits. 
In  view  of  these  objections  it  is  generally  considered 
best  to  use  vent-pipes  with  water-closet  traps ;  and  bottle- 
traps,  frequently  cleaned  out,  under  sinks,  basins,  and  tubs. 

22.  If  the  vent-pipe  is  used,  is  it   (a)    either  extended 
through  to  the  roof  and  two  feet  above  it,  entirely  separate 
from  any  chimney-flue,  or  branched  into  a  soil-pipe  above 
the  inlet  from  the  highest  fixture  ? 

(<5)  Is  it  either  vertical  or  continuously  sloping,  to  avoid 
collection  of  water  by  condensation  ? 

(c)  Is  the  main  vent-pipe  at  least  three  inches,  and  the 
branch  vent-pipe  two  inches,  in  diameter? 

23.  Are  slop-hoppers  thoroughly  flushed  after  each  use? 

24.  Is  their  outlet  provided  with  a  strainer? 

25.  If  a  water-closet  is  used  as  a  slop-hopper,   is  it  in- 
variably a  hopper  or  wash-out  closet,   without   woodwork 
except  the  seat  on  the  top? 

Note.  —  Pan, 
valve,  and  plunger 
closets  should  never 
be  used  for  slops. 

26.  Is  the  old- 
fashioned  pan-clos- 
et (Fig.  145),  which 
is  condemned  as 
clumsy  and  unsafe 
by  all  sanitarians,  re- 
placed by  some  one 
of  the  numerous 
simpler  and  more 
effective  modern 
closets? 


26  HOME   SANITATION. 

Pan  Closet. 

The  upper  bowl  is  set  into  a  large  container ;  a  copper 
pan  closes  the  bowl  at  the  bottom.  The  dotted  lines  show 
the  position  of  the  pan  when  open.  The  contents  of  the 
bowl  are  discharged  by  tilting  the  pan  by  the  lever.  It 
is  a  complicated  apparatus,  and  likely  to  get  out  of  order. 

Objections. 

Its  container  is  inaccessible.  This  container  becomes  foul, 
and  the  flush  of  water  cleanses  it  very  imperfectly.  The  flush 
is  usually  not  strong  enough  to  drive  the  solid  matter  over 
the  bend  of  the  S  trap  in  the  pipe.  The  foul  air  from  the 
decomposition  of  this  filth  escapes  into  the  room  every 
time  the  closet  is  used  and  the  water-seal  in  the  pan  is 
broken ;  it  also  escapes  through  the  lever-hole  when  not  in 
use.  Even  if  these  objections  are  obviated  by  a  special 
flushing  apparatus  for  both  bowl  and  container,  by  fresh- 
air  pipe  and  vent-pipe,  and  by  enamelling  the  container, 
the  only  merit  which  can  be  claimed  for  it  is  that  of  cheap- 
ness. 

The  essentials  of  a  sanitary  closet  are  rapid  and  free 
flushing ;  a  deep  water-seal ;  avoidance  of  siphonage ; 
simplicity  of  construction ;  accessibility  for  cleansing  and 
inspection.  There  are  many  modern  fixtures  which  fill 
these  conditions. 

27.  If  a  grease-trap  is  provided  for  the  kitchen  sink,  is 
it  frequently  cleaned  and  inspected  ? 

Note.  —  Grease  carried  from  the  kitchen  sink  by  hot  water 
soon  becomes  cold,  and  adheres  to  the  sides  of  the  pipe  and 
trap,  unless  the  drain  has  a  very  good  pitch.  A  special  trap 


DRAINAGE  AND   PLUMBING.  2/ 

placed  near  the  sink  to  intercept  the  grease  before  it  con- 
geals is  called  a  grease-trap.  If  there  is  no  grease-trap  the 
sink  should  be  frequently  washed  out  with  a  hot  solution  of 
washing-soda,  or  potash.  This  is  more  effective  if  done  at 
night  after  all  other  work  is  finished. 

28.  Is  the  space  under  the  kitchen  sink  free  to  light  and 
ventilation,  and  accessible  for  frequent  cleansing? 

29.  Are  all  articles  excluded  from  the  sink-pipe  which 
are  likely  to  obstruct  it?     (Question  16.) 

30.  Is  the  refrigerator  waste-pipe  free  from  direct  con- 
nection with  the  soil-pipe  or  drain  ? 

31.  Is  it  discharged  by  a  pipe  opening  above  a  sink  in 
the  basement,  or  emptied  on  the  ground  in  such  a  way  that 
it  drains  off  quickly? 

32.  If  the  sink  is  used,  is  the  waste-pipe  from  this  sink 
effectively  trapped  before  entering  the  drain  ? 

33.  Are  the  waste-pipes  which  lead  from  the  sheet-lead 
safes   provided  under  basins,    tubs,  water-closets,    etc.,  to 
prevent  flooding    of  floors  and  ceilings,  not  directly  con- 
nected with  the  soil-pipe  or  drain,  but  discharged  into  an 
open  sink  in  the  cellar,  or  over  water-closet  cisterns  ? 

34.  Are    the    overflow-pipes   of  all    cisterns    used    for 
drinking,  cooking,  or  washing,  free  from  direct  connection 
with  the  soil-pipes. 

35.  Are  they  either  discharged  on  the  roof,  or  over  an 
open  sink,  etc.,  as  above? 

36.  Are  rain-water  leaders  used  for  that  purpose  only, 
and  never  as  soil,  waste,  or  ventilating  pipes? 

37.  If,  unhappily,  the  leader  does  discharge  into  the  drain 
and  its  top  opens  within  ten  feet  of  a  window,  is  it  trapped 
at  the  bottom,  just  before  entering  the  drain? 

Note.  —  When   the    contents   of    these   waste-pipes    (in 


28  HOME   SANITATION. 

Questions  30-37)  are  eventually  discharged  into  the  drain 
they  are  of  great  assistance  in  flushing  the  pipe.  The  dis- 
connection by  trap  and  at  the  open  sink  reduces  to  a 
minimum  the  danger  of  back  passage  of  foul  air. 

When  these  wastes  are  discharged  directly  into  the  soil, 
they  are  liable  to  cause  standing  puddles,  gut  lawns,  and 
increase  the  dampness  about  the  house  and  the  possibility 
of  dampness  in  the  cellar. 

38.  After  sinks  and  bowls  have  been  used  is  fresh  water 
turned  on  to  fill  the  traps  and  displace  the  dirty  water 
which  would  otherwise  stand  in  them  ? 

m 

If  the  house  has  not  the  water-carriage  system  :  — 

1.  Are  earth-closets,  ash-closets,  the  pail  system,  or  some 
method  of  frequent  removal  and  disinfection  adopted? 

2.  If  not,    is  the    receptacle  of  the   privy  cemented    to 
prevent  leakage  and  soakage,  and  to  permit  the  complete 
removal  of  its  contents  ? 

3.  Is  the  receptacle  accessible  from  outside  the  house  ? 

4.  Is  the  closet  separated  from  living-rooms  and  sleeping- 
rooms  by  a  ventilated   passage-way  protected  from  storm 
and  cold? 

5.  Is  a  box  of  dried  and    sifted  loam  placed  near,  and 
enough  thrown  in  after  each  use  to  keep  the  contents  dry  ? 

Note.  —  Gravel  and  sand  are  useless  for  disinfection. 

6.  Is  a  separate  receptacle  and  drain  provided  for  slops 
and  other  fluid  wastes? 

Note.  —  The  efficacy  of  earth  depends  on  its  deodorizing 
and  absorbing  properties,  which  exist  only  when  it  is  dry  ; 
hence,  if  slop-water  is  poured  into  the  receptacle,  a  larger 
amount  of  earth  is  needed  to  absorb  it,  and  prevent  decom- 
position, than  can  be  conveniently  used. 


DRAINAGE  AND   PLUMBING.  2Q 

7.  Are  you  careful  not  to  throw  slop- water  frequently 
on  the  same  spot  of  ground  near  the  house  ? 

8.  Is  an  absolutely  tight   receptacle    substituted   for   the 
common  cesspool  ? 

Note.  —  The  common  cesspool  is  lined  with  bricks  or 
stones  so  loosely  laid  that  the  noxious  gases  which  are 
generated,  and  the  liquid  contents,  escape  into  the  soil. 
The  gases  are  liable  to  make  their  way  back  into  the 
drainage  system  of  the  house.  They  permeate  the  ground, 
and,  if  the  cesspool  is  near  the  house,  pollute  the  cellar  air. 
The  liquid  contents  spread  through  the  soil,  and  con- 
taminate the  water  of  wells  and  springs,  even  at  great 
distances.  In  these  different  ways  the  cesspool  may  be  the 
means  of  breeding  and  spreading  disease.  It  is,  therefore, 
not  only  a  constant  source  of  danger  to  the  immediate 
household,  but  is  always  objectionable  in  the  interest  of 
public  health.  Its  use  is  entirely  prohibited  by  sanitarians. 

9.  Is  this  receptacle  emptied  (a)  by  a  flush-tank  through  an 
impervious  pipe,  into  a  series  of  earthen  or  tile  drains  with 
open  joints,  and  its  contents  discharged  into  the  ground  a 
short  distance  below  the  surface  ?     Or,   (<5)  are  its  contents 
carried  through  an    impervious  pipe,  and  emptied  on  the 
surface  of  the  ground  at  a  distance  from   the   house   or   a 
source  of  water-supply  ?  and  is  the  position  of  the  outlet  of 
the  pipe  occasionally  changed  ? 

Note. — (Vide  a.)  Flush-tanks  are  self-emptying,  tight 
cesspools,  small  in  size,  and  made  automatic  in  various 
ways.  They  are  thus  emptied  intermittingly.  By  this 
action  the  liquid  is  forced  more  rapidly  through  the  pipes 
and  they  are  prevented  from  being  choked.  The  sewage 
is  also  more  widely  distributed  and  has  time  to  subside, 
instead  of  keeping  the  ground  a  little  wet  all  the  time  ;  the 


3O  HOME  SANITATION. 

air  can  then  enter,  and  the  aerated  soil  can  do  its  work  as 
a  purifying  and  disinfecting  agent. 

10.  If  a  self-emptying  cesspool  cannot  be  used,  is  the 
receptacle  water-tight,  suitably  ventilated,  and  emptied  at 
regular  intervals? 

n.  Are  its  contents  placed  on  the  soil  in  the  morning 
of  a  dry  clear  day,  and  in  places  where  they  may  be 
readily  absorbed  by  the  earth,  so  that  the  odors  may  be  as 
inoffensive  as  possible,  and  is  copperas  solution  occasionally 
sprinkled  over  them  ? 

12.  If  the  house  is  in  a  village  lot,  which  is  too  small  to 
permit  of  any  of  the  preceding  arrangements,  is  a  small 
water-tight  receptacle  provided  and  its   contents   regularly 
removed  to  a  farm  or  the  open  country  away  from  houses  ? 

13.  Is  the  kitchen  sink  furnished  with  a  tight  drain  which 
will   carry  the  drainage  away  from  the  house,  instead  of 
depositing  it  under  the  windows  to  decompose  and  act  as  an 
important  factor  in  the  production  of  disease  ? 

14.  Is  the  end  of  the  drain   next  the  house  connected 
with  the  kitchen  sink  by  a  lead  pipe  with  a  trap  ? 

15.  Is  the  kitchen  fire  often  made  use  of  and  considered 
an  effective  and  economical  way  of  disposing  of  articles 
which  might  otherwise  be  offensive  ? 


VENTILATION.  3 1 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VENTILATION. 

THE  necessity  of  pure  air  in  our  homes  cannot  be  too 
strongly  urged ;  and  its  importance  should  secure  for 
it  the  careful  daily  attention  of  every  housekeeper.  She  will 
find  it  difficult,  at  best,  to  keep  off  illness  from  her  family ; 
but  much  may  be  done  by  a  wholesome  atmosphere  toward 
keeping  each  member  of  the  household  strong,  active,  and 
happy.  Sanitarians  agree  that  pure  air  is  the  first  essential 
for  a  healthful  home. 

The  maintenance  of  pure  air  in  our  climate  undoubtedly 
entails  expense,  for  a  great  deal  of  fuel  is  needed  to  prepare 
outside  air  for  our  use ;  but,  in  estimating  the  actual  cost, 
several  points  should  be  considered.  Not  only  must  the 
bills  for  coal  and  wood  be  compared  with  the  bills  for  doc- 
tors and  nurses,  but  account  must  be  taken  of  the  increase 
in  headache,  listlessness,  laziness,  irritability,  and  nervous- 
ness, which  follow  as  a  consequence  of  breathing  impure 
air.  These  results,  which  incapacitate  for  the  duties  as  well 
as  the  pleasures  of  life,  are  a  less  striking  accompaniment  of 
impure  air  than  are  diphtheria  or  typhoid  fever,  and  their 
cause  is,  therefore,  too  frequently  overlooked. 

The  housekeeper  should  personally  attend  to  the  daily 
airing  of  every  part  of  the  house,  and  to  the  warming  of  all 
living-rooms  as  quickly  as  possible  afterwards.  But  she 
should  remember  that,  if  the  outside  air  chance  to  be  very 
damp  or  foul,  no  good  end  will  be  served  by  opening  doors 


3 2  HOME    SANITATION. 

and  windows.  She  should  make  it  her  duty  to  guard  against 
all  draughts,  and  should  look  upon  them  as  an  indication  of 
imperfect  ventilation.  She  should  remember  that  windows 
are  made  for  the  admission  of  light  and  for  an  occasional 
thorough  change  of  air.  but  are  not  ventilators,  and  that  all 
window-ventilators,  and  they  are  numberless,  are  make- 
shifts. 

The  ideal  house  is  provided  with  an  abundance  of  air  by 
means  of  flues,  without  using  the  windows  ;  but,  in  the  ordi- 
nary house  of  the  present  time,  the  use  of  the  windows  has 
to  be  depended  upon  more  or  less  for  a  quick  change  of  air. 

More  air  than  would  seem  possible  is  admitted  through 
the  walls  of  the  house  and  around  the  windows  and  doors. 
This  amount  is  increased  by  the  presence  of  an  open  fire, 
which  draws  the  air  toward  it.  A  constant  circulation  is 
thus  kept  up,  and  the  esca'pe  of  air  by  the  chimney  keeps  the 
atmosphere  in  a  purer  and  more  wholesome  state  than  is 
possible  with  any  other  arrangement.  An  open  chimney, 
even  without  a  fire,  carries  off  quite  an  amount  of  impure 
air.  This  may  be  greatly  increased,  when  a  fire  is  not 
needed,  by  placing  a  lighted  lamp  or  candle  in  the  fireplace 
to  make  a  draught  upwards. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  cardinal  principle  of  ven- 
tilation is  circulation.  It  is  even  more  important  to  provide 
a  chance  for  foul  air  to  escape  than  to  furnish  a  special  inlet 
for  fresh  air.  Under  the  conditions  of  ordinary  living,  air 
which  is  made  impure  by  breathing  and  the  burning  of  lamps 
is  generally  warmer  than  outside  air  and  has,  therefore,  a 
tendency  to  rise.  If  it  can  escape,  its  place  will  be  filled  by 
air  drawn  in  from  the  cracks  about  windows  and  doors. 
The  general  outlet  of  air  for  the  house  should  be  in  the  top 
story,  but  sometimes  the  open  window  or  skylight  is  im- 


VENTILATION.  33 

practicable  on  account  of  the  down  draught  caused  by  the 
prevailing  winds.  Unless  the  position  of  the  opening  can 
be  altered  the  plan  has  to  be  abandoned  in  windy  weather. 

The  height  of  rooms  should  not  be  over  ten  or  at  most 
twelve  feet,  unless  unusual  means  are  provided  for  the 
escape  of  the  vitiated  air,  which  accumulates  like  an  in- 
verted lake,  near  the  ceiling. 

Special  attention  should  be  given  to  ventilating,  as  well 
as  frequently  airing,  the  kitchen  and  the  bath-room.  The 
odors  of  cooking  are  often  so  perceptible  as  to  be  a  serious 
annoyance  to  the  family,  while  they  should  be  rarely  noticed 
through  the  house  and  should  never  be  troublesome.  In 
the  bath-room  bad  air  is  as  dangerous  as  any  other  poison, 
and  should  be  guarded  against  with  equal  vigilance. 

To  sum  up,  the  important  objects  of  ventilation  are :  — 

I.  To  provide  an  abundance  of  pure  air  in  every  part  of 
the  house. 

II.  To  avoid  draughts,  either  warm  or  cold. 

III.  To  provide  means  of  escape  for  foul  air  and  odors. 
Time  and  money  spent  in  attaining  these  ends  will  be  well 

invested,  and  the  householder  will  be  richly  repaid  by  the 
increase  in  vigor,  comfort,  and  happiness  of  every  member 
of  his  family. 


QUESTIONS. 

1.  Are  all  living-rooms  and  sleeping-rooms  thoroughly 
aired  at  least  once  a  day? 

2.  Are  the  windows  so  placed  as  to  make  a  draught  pos- 
sible when  needed  to  effect  a  quick  change  of  air? 

3.  After  the  rooms  are  aired  early  in  the  morning,  are 
they,  in  cold  weather,  at  once  warmed  again  enough  for 


34  HOME   SANITATION. 

comfort  and  safety  and  to  prevent  remonstrances  from  the 
family  against  the  daily  airing? 

4.  Is  there  a  constant  supply  of  fresh  air  in  every  part  of 
the  house? 

5.  Is  an  outlet  for  foul  air,  as  well  as  an  inlet  for  fresh 
air,  provided  in  the  different  rooms? 

6.  Are  the  inlets  and  outlets  arranged  to  prevent  constant 
draughts  ? 

7.  Is  there  a  skylight  at  the  top  of  the  house,  so  placed 
with  regard  to  the  prevailing  winds  that  it  maybe  kept  open 
a  few  inches  most  of  the  time  as  an  outlet  for  impure  air 
without  causing  a  downward  draught  through  the  house? 

8.  If  such  a  skylight  is  impracticable,  can  a  window  in 
the  top  story  be  kept  open  a  little  most  of  the  time? 

9.  Are  the  outside  or  double  windows  made  with  two 
sashes,  or  with  movable  panes,  so  as  to  admit  a  current  of  air 
when  desired? 

10.  Are  all  windows  arranged  so  that  they  can  be  lowered 
easily  from  the  top  ? 

11.  If  there  is  a  water-tank,  is  the  air  of  the  room   in 
which  it  is  placed  kept  fresh  and  pure,  and  is  it  frequently 
cleaned? 

12.  Are  the  halls  supplied  with  plenty  of  pure,  warm 
air? 

13.  Are  sleeping-rooms  kept  cooler  than  living-rooms? 

14.  When  a  sleeping-room  is  used  as  a  sewing-room  or 
sitting-room,  during  the  day,  is  it  thoroughly  aired  before 
bed-time? 

15.  Do  you  open  your  chamber-windows  as  soon  as  you 
are  dressed? 

1 6.  Do   you   at   the  same  time  always  open  the  closet 
door  ? 

17.  At  night  is  a  piece  of  cotton  cloth  hung  over  the 


VENTILATION.  35 

opening  of  the  window,  a  board  inserted,  or  a  screen  placed 
before  the  bed  to  break  the  force  of  the  current  of  air? 

1 8.  When  there  is  a  great  difference  between  the  tempera- 
ture in-doors  and  out  do  you  remember  that  a  great  deal  of 
air  finds  its  way  in  through  the  walls  and  around  the  win- 
dows, and  the  window  should  not  be  open  as  far  as  at  other 
times  ? 

19.  In  warm  weather  do  you  keep  the  bath-room  window 
open  as  much  as  possible,  both  top  and  bottom,  to  allow  the 
air  to  escape  out  of  doors  instead  of  into  other  parts  of  the 
house  ? 

20.  In   cold  weather  is   the   bathroom  window  opened 
frequently,  top  and  bottom,  for  a  few  minutes  at  a  time? 

21.  Is  there  a  thermometer  in  every  room  ? 

22.  Are  the  living-rooms  kept  at  a  temperature  not  ex- 
ceeding 70°  F.  ? 

23.  Have  you  an  efficient  method  for  ventilating  the  top 
of  the  rooms,  where  foul  air  is  apt  to  collect? 

24.  If  not,  can  you  put  in  a  foul-air  outlet,  in  the  shape  of 
a  box,  between  the  ceiling  and  the  floor  above,  extending 
from  the  chimney  to  the  chandelier,  with  apertures  over  the 
latter? 

25.  If  a  nursery,  school-room,  or  sitting-room  is  occupied 
a  large  part  of  the  day,  or  by  many  people  at  one  time,  are 
the  windows  occasionally  opened    for   a    few    minutes,  to 
change  the  air,  at  a  time  when  the  family  are  at  their  meals 
or  occupied  elsewhere  ? 

26.  Does  the  member  of  the  family  who  is  the  last  to  re- 
tire thoroughly  air  the  room  where  the  family  have  been 
sitting  through  the  evening,  in  order  that  the  foul  air  may 
not  have  a  chance  to  make  its  way  through  the  house  dur- 
ing the  night? 


36  HOME   SANITATION. 

Ventilation  of  the  kitchen  :  — 

27.  Has  the  kitchen  adequate  arrangements  for  constant 
ventilation  and  occasional  airing? 

28.  Do  you  keep  a  window  lowered  a  little  from  the 
top? 

29.  Is  th'ere  a  ventilating-flue  in  the  kitchen-chimney  ? 

30.  If  odors  from  cooking  are  especially  troublesome, 
can  a  hood  over  the  range  or  stove  be  connected  with  the 
flue,  or  are  kettles  used  which  have  special  provision  for 
carrying  away  the  odors  ? 

31.  Are  there  windows  on  opposite  sides  of  the  kitchen 
for  quickly  changing  the  air  ? 

32.  Are  there  openings  on  different  outside  walls  with 
register-ventilators   which    may   be    closed    in    very    cold 
weather?     Are  these  protected  from  dust  by  cheese-cloth? 

Note.  —  These  should  be  so  placed  that  no  draught  will 
be  felt  in  the  part  of  the  kitchen  most  in  use,  and  should  be 
as  near  the  ceiling  as  possible,  in  order  to  move  the  upper 
strata  of  hot  air,  which  usually  carry  odors  over  the  whole 
house. 


HEATING.  37 


CHAPTER  V. 

HEATING. 

IT  must  be  the  aim  of  the  housekeeper  to  provide  all 
parts  of  the  house  with  air  that  is  not  only  fresh  and 
pure,  but  sufficiently  warm  for  health  and  comfort.  In  this 
climate  the  question  of  heating  the  air  is  an  important  one 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year. 

Comfort  is  not  secured  by  merely  having  hot  air  to 
breathe ;  the  walls  and  floors  also  should  be  kept  warm. 
The  different  rooms  and  halls  of  the  house  should  be  of  so 
nearly  the  same  temperature  that  no  chill  is 'felt  on  passing 
from  one  to  another.  Equable  temperature  is  best  obtained 
by  gentle,  continuous  heat.  To  accomplish  this  in  ex- 
tremely cold  weather  it  may  be  necessary  to  furnish  heat 
all  night. 

When  the  house  is  heated  by  a  furnace,  or  by  steam  or 
hot-water  pipes  passing  through  an  air-chamber  in  the  cel- 
lar, the  hot-air  conductors  serve  also  as  ventilating  flues. 

If  the  rooms  are  heated  by  stoves,  or  by  radiators,  some 
other  means  must  be  devised  to  bring  in  fresh  air.  It  is 
sometimes  introduced  in  the  floor  around  the  stove  so  that 
it  is  warmed  before  passing  into  the  room. 

The  furnace  is  best  adapted  for  houses  of  moderate  size, 
and,  if  open  fires  are  used  in  connection  with  it,  there  is  also 
the  best  possible  provision  for  the  removal  of  impure  air. 
The  old-fashioned  fireplaces,  which  our  grandfathers  used, 
were  very  large,  and  required  an  immense  amount  of  fuel. 
When  the  fire  was  lighted  it  caused  a  tremendous  draught, 


38  HOME   SANITATION. 

and  air  was  drawn  in  through  the  cracks  around  the  loose 
windows  and  from  the  cold  halls.  As  a  result  the  only 
warm  place  in  the  room  was  close  to  the  fireplace,  and  this 
was  often  too  hot  for  comfort.  The  modern  fireplace  and 
chimney  are  much  smaller,  and  serve  to  remove  the  impure 
air  without  causing  sensible  draughts. 

No  part  of  the  household  machinery  requires  more  intel- 
ligent or  judicious  management  than  the  furnace,  and  it 
should  never  be  left  wholly  to  the  care  of  servants.  As  its 
essential  parts  are  usually  completely  hidden  from  view,  the 
accompanying  cuts  are  given  to  aid  the  housekeeper  in 
understanding  its  construction. 

A  furnace  is  practically  a  large  stove  standing  in  an  en- 
closed air-chamber.  The  enclosing  surface  may  be  galvan- 
ized iron,  as  in  a  portable  furnace,  or  brick.  The  cold-air 
box  is  the  passage  which  connects  this  chamber  with  the 
out-of-door  air,  and  the  hot-air  pipes  distribute  the  air  after 
it  has  been  heated.  These  should  be  so  planned  in  refer- 
ence to  each  other  that  the  air  from  the  cold-air  box  has  to 
pass  at  least  once  around  the  furnace,  before  entering  the 
hot-air  pipes. 

In  order  to  meet  the  too-prevalent  demand  for  compact- 
ness and  cheapness,  many  furnaces  are  made  on  the  princi- 
ple of  furnishing  a  small  volume  of  air  highly  heated.  The 
air  as  it  enters  the  room  is  then  in  a  state  which  is  called 
"  burnt."  Sanitary  requirements  strictly  forbid  this.  The 
cold-air  box,  the  fire-pot,  the  hot-air  chamber,  the  pipes  and 
the  registers  should  all  be  large  enough  to  supply  the  rooms 
with  a  large  volume  of  air  moderately  warmed,  not  over 
I2O°F.  Only  then  does  the  furnace  meet  the  demands  of 
both  sanitary  heating  and  ventilation. 

The  material  of  which  the  furnace  is  made  is  of  less  im- 


HEATING. 


39 


4O  HOME   SANITATION. 

portance  than  the  thoroughness  of  its  construction.  In  cast- 
iron  furnaces  the  few  joints  necessary  should  be  horizontal. 
The  old  notion  that  cast-iron  allowed  carbonic  oxide  to  pass 
through  probably  arose  from  the  fact  that  cast-iron  furnaces 
and  stoves  have  many  joints  which  it  is  difficult  to  keep 
tight ;  but  stoves  with  loose  covers  •  and  cracks  have  been 
used  in  kitchens  for  years  with  apparent  safety.  A  moment's 
consideration  of  the  conditions  will  show  that  there  is  little 
danger  from  this  cause  if  the  draughts  of  the  furnace  are 
properly  arranged.  If  all  the  dampers  of  the  kitchen  stove 
are  suddenly  shut  the  gas  comes  into  the  room,  but  not 
otherwise.  So,  in  a  furnace,  if  the  draught  is  up  chimney, 
as  it  should  be,  there  is  little  danger  of  contaminating  the 
air. 

As  the  tendency  of  warm  air  is  always  to  rise,  it  will  be 
found  difficult  to  heat  rooms  on  the  first  floor,  if  the  pipes 
leading  to  them,  which  are  necessarily  nearly  horizontal, 
are  more  than  fifteen  feet  long. 

Air  at  70°  is  capable  of  containing  much  more  moisture 
than  it  can  at  a  lower  temperature.  A  dish  of  water 
placed  where  it  will  slowly  evaporate  supplies  this  need, 
and  prevents  the  air  from  seeming  parched  and  dry. 

Unless  the  amount  of  fire  in  the  furnace  can  be  regulated 
easily  the  family  are  apt  to  suffer  when  warm  spring  days 
come,  and  the  fire  is  allowed  to  go  out.  There  should  be 
provision  for  open  fires,  or  a  low  fire  should  be  kept  con- 
stantly in  the  furnace,  until  settled  warm  weather.  The 
amount  of  heat  can  be  most  easily  regulated  when  the  house 
is  heated  by  hot  water,  and,  with  this  method,  there  is  no 
danger  of  over-heating  or  burning  the  air. 


HEATING. 


42  HOME   SANITATION. 


QUESTIONS. 

I.  —  If  furnace  heat  is  used,  — 

1.  Is  the  furnace  large  enough  to  heat  the  house  thor- 
oughly and  at  the  same  time  furnish  air  for  ventilation  ? 

2.  Are  all  the  joints  tight  and  the  castings  smooth  and 
sound  ? 

3.  Are  the  furnace  and  pipes  periodically  examined  and 
cleaned  ? 

4.  Is  the  smoke-pipe  at  least  16  inches  from  the  ceiling? 

5.  Is  the   smoke-pipe  so  arranged  that  there  is  a  good 
draught  ? 

6.  Is  there  provision  for  the  evaporation  of  water? 

7.  Are  the  hot-air  pipes  so  arranged  that  they  do  not  come 
within  two  inches  of  any  wood-work  ? 

8.  Is  each  horizontal  pipe  less  than  fifteen  feet  in  length  ? 

9.  Have  the  hot-air  pipes  dampers  in  the  cellar,  by  which 
the  heat  may  be  cut  off  from  any  part  of  the  house  when 
desired  ?     Are  these  labelled  ? 

10.  Is  the  cold-air  box  short  and  direct,  opening  out-of- 
doors  ? 

11.  If  necessarily  long,  is  it  easily  cleaned,  and  so  ar- 
ranged that  it  cannot  become  a  receptacle  for  rubbish? 

12.  Is  it  kept  perfectly  clean  and  dry? 

13.  Is  the  area  of  its  opening  equal  at  least  to  the  area 
of  all  the  registers  less  one  sixth  ? 

14.  Is  it  so  tight  that  the  furnace  cannot  draw   any  air 
from  the  cellar? 

Note. — Wooden  air-boxes  are  not  to  be  recommended, 
because  they  are  liable  to  have  cracks  and  imperfect  joints. 
If  such  exist,  some  of  the  injurious  effects  may  be  removed 
by  filling  the  cracks  with  cotton-wool.  If  an  opening  or 
door,  such  as  is  shown  in  the  cut,  is  provided  to  be  used  in 


HEATING.  43 

cleaning  out  the  air-box,  it  should  be  made  to  close  tightly, 
so  that  air  may  never  be  drawn  from  the  cellar  into  the 
furnace. 

15.  Has  it  a  movable  slide  by  which  the  amount  of  air 
admitted  may  be  regulated? 

1 6.  Are  there  two  cold-air  boxes,  on  different  sides  of  the 
house,  to  avoid  the  annoyance  of  too  great  wind-pressure  ? 

Note.  —  This  is  especially  desirable  for  a  country  house 
in  an  exposed  situation. 

1 7.  Has  the  outside  opening  of  the  cold-air  box  a  wire 
netting  to  keep  out  falling  leaves,  or  cats,  rats,  etc.  ? 

1 8.  Is   this   opening  away  from   every  drain-ventilator, 
cesspool,  yard-gully,  ash-barrel,  swill-tub,  privy,  or  other 
source  of  contamination  ? 

19.  In  a  city  house,  is  it  on  the  side  of  the  house  farthest 
from  the  street,  to  avoid  the  entrance  of  dust,  etc.  ? 

20.  If  not,  is  cheese-cloth  or  bunting  stretched  over  it  to 
sift  out  the  dust,  and  this  cloth  frequently  cleansed? 

21.  Is  it  at  least  two  feet  above  the  ground? 

22.  Does  the  surface  around  it  slope  away  sufficiently  to 
carry  off  moisture  rapidly  ? 

23.  Are  the  registers  so  placed  as  to  collect  as  little  dust 
as  possible,  i.e.,  in  the  wall,  when  practicable? 

24.  Are  they  large  enough  for  the  room  they  try  to  heat  ? 
Note.  —  Two  sq.  ft.  for  10,000  cu.  ft.  of  space. 

25.  If  they  are  in  the  floor,  are  they  taken  out  at  least 
once  a  month,  and  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  pipe  wiped 
out  with  a  damp  cloth  as  far  down  as  possible  ? 

26.  When  the  room  is  being  swept,  or  the  furnace  shaken 
down,  is  the  register  closed  ? 

27.  Are  the  registers  so  placed  with  regard  to  the  fire- 
place, ventilator,  or  window,  that  the  pure,  warm  air,  on 
entering  the  room,  does  not  at  once  pass  out  by  the  outlet 


44  HOME  SANITATION. 

for  foul  air,  and  thus  cause  a  draught,  and  lessen  the  benefit 
from  the  furnace  ? 

II.  —  If  the  house  is  heated  either  wholly  or  in  part  by 
open  fires,  — 

1 .  Do  you  see  that  an  abundant  supply  of  fresh  air  is  fur- 
nished to  the  fuel  to  avoid  the  formation  of  carbonic  oxide 
by  imperfect  combustion,  and  also  to  prevent  the  air  used 
to  replace  that  which  passes  up  chimney  from  being  drawn 
from  other  parts  of  the  house? 

Note.  —  With  coal,  a  blue  flame  indicates  the  presence  of 
carbonic  oxide,  a  most  poisonous  gas. 

2.  Are  the  draughts  of  the  chimney  strong  enough  to 
carry  away  all  the  products  of  combustion? 

3.  Is  the  hearth  laid  on  a  brick  arch  to  prevent  danger 
from  fire? 

III.  —  If  stoves  are  used,  — 

1.  Is  there  a  provision  for  the  introduction  of  fresh  air 
to  take  the  place  of  that  drawn  from  the  room  by  the  stove? 

2.  When  the  fire  is  kindling,  after  putting  on  fresh  fuel, 
are  the  draughts  arranged  so  that  no  carbonic  oxide  or  coal- 
gas  passes  into  the  room  ? 

Note.  —  Neglect  of  this  precaution  often  leads  to  serious 
or  fatal  consequences. 

3.  Do  you  keep  an  open  dish  of  water  on   the  stove  to 
give  the  requisite  moisture  to  the  air  ? 

IV.  —  If  the   house  is  heated  either  by  steam  or   hot- 
water,  — 

1 .  Are  the  boilers  inspected  once  every  year,  to  see  if 
they  are  in  good  condition? 

2.  Are  the  pipes  tight  so  that  they  do  not  leak? 

3.  Are  the  pipes  in  the  cellar  covered  with  asbestos  or 
some  other  non-conducting  material? 


HEATING.  45 

4.  If  the  rooms  are  heated  by  direct  radiation,  i.e.)  if 
radiators  for  hot  water  or  steam  are  placed  in  the  rooms, 
are  means  provided  for  introducing  plenty  of  fresh  air,  and 
supplying  needed  moisture  to  the  air? 

Note.  —  The  need  for  moisture  is  imperative  only  when 
the  air  is  heated  excessively,  as  it  is  with  steam  and  over- 
heated furnace. 


46  HOME    SANITATION. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

LIGHTING. 

UNDER  the  conditions  of  modern  civilization  much 
reading,  writing,  and  sewing  is  necessarily  done  in 
the  evening,  and  by  artificial  light.  During  the  hours  spent 
under  artificial  light  we  are  in  abnormal  conditions, —  con- 
ditions which  at  best  are  unsanitary  and  unnatural,  —  and 
all  possible  precautions  should  be  taken  to  render  them  as 
harmless  as  possible.  It  is  believed  that  much  headache, 
often  attributed  to  other  causes,  is  in  reality  due  to  unsuit- 
able lighting.  Although  the  electric  light  and  candles  of 
tallow,  wax,  or  paraffine  are  in  use,  yet  the  choice  of  illu- 
minant  is  as  yet  practically  limited  to  gas  and  kerosene. 

The  two  chief  points  to  be  observed  in  connection  with 
the  artificial  light  are  :  First,  To  avoid  undue  vitiation  and 
heating  of  air  in  the  room ;  Second,  To  secure  a  strong  and 
steady  light. 

All  combustion  uses  up  oxygen,  and  produces  carbonic- 
acid  gas  ;  hence,  with  the  exception  of  the  electric  light,  all 
artificial  illumination  of  a  room  is  a  great  tax  upon  the  air- 
supply  and  upon  the  means  of  ventilation. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  one  ordinary  gas-jet  will  con- 
sume as  much  air  as  two  people,  and  a  kerosene  lamp 
will  use  as  much  as  four  people. 

Unless  the  burner  is  of  a  good  pattern,  there  may  be  an 
escape  of  unconsumed  gas,  which  still  further  vitiates  the 
air.  All  so-called  whistling  of  the  gas  means  an  escape  of 
unconsumed  gas,  and  should  not  be  allowed. 


LIGHTING. 


Combustion  not  only  furnishes  the  desired  light,  but  it 
also  yields  undesired  heat,  and  this  heat  is  the  cause  of 
much  of  the  headache  in  the  evening,  as  well  as  of  much 
injury  to  the  eyes.  If  it  is  necessary  to  hold  the  head  near 
the  light,  it  is  best  to  have  some  kind  of  shade  which  is  not 
a  good  conductor  of  heat. 

The  amount  of  vitiation  of  the  air,  and  the  amount  of 
heat  given  off,  are  seen  by  the  following  table.1 


Quantity 
consumed. 

if 

o 

Oxygen 
removed. 

a 

§3 
o 

Moisture 
produced. 

Heat 
calorics 
produced. 

jil 

Tallow  candles      .    . 

2  200  grains 

16 

Cu.  ft. 
TO  7 

Cu.  ft. 

7  -2 

Cu.ft. 
82 

12  O 

Sperm  candles  

I  74.O        " 

16 

06 

II 

6  c 

I  I  77 

1  1  O 

jParaffine  oil  lamp  

1,]<VJ 

QQ2        " 

16 

62 

WO 

4e 

w»P 

•2  e 

»>*J|/ 

I  O3O 

7e 

Kerosene  oil  lamp  .... 
Coal   gas,  No.    5,  bat- 
wing  burner  

909        « 

C  r  CU    ft 

16 
16 

5-9 
6  c 

O 
4.1 

28 

oO 

3-3 

7  3 

I,O3O 
I  IQ4. 

O 
7.0 

C  O 

Coal     gas,     A  r  g  a  n  d 

4.8    "     " 

16 

7*3 

r  8 

->6 

i'j 

6  A 

i,iy^. 
I  2dO 

0<u 

d.  7 

Coal  gas,  regeneration 
(Siemens)  burner... 
Coal     gas     (Welsbach 
incandescent) 

3.2     «       « 
3  <     "      " 

32 

CO 

3-6 
d.  I 

i-7 
i  8 

4.2 

760 
76? 

't'O 
2.8 

•I   Q 

Electric     incandescent 
light  

JO 

0.3  Ib.  coal. 

y* 

16 

o.o 

o  o 

•7 
o  o 

I^J 

77 

O'u 

o  o 

O/ 

Since  natural  illumination  is  equal  in  nearly  every  part 
of  the  room,  it  seems  desirable  that  artificial  illumination 
shall  also  extend  to  every  part  of  the  room,  to  avoid  an 
undue  strain  upon  the  eyes,  when  looking  up  from  book  or 
work. 

1  Notter  and  Firth :  Treatise  on  Hygiene,  p.  141. 


48  HOME   SANITATION. 

In  the  use  of  the  kerosene  lamp  several  points  ought  to 
be  noted :  — 

1.  The  lamp  should  be  filled  daily,  for  two  reasons: 
(a)   The  higher  the  flame  from  the  reservoir  of  oil,  the  less 
is  the  light  given  for  equal  volumes  of  oil  burned.      (6)   The 
larger  the  air-space  over  the  oil  in  the  reservoir,  the  greater 
is  the  danger  of  an  explosion. 

2.  Combustion  is  the  more  perfect,  the  nearer  the  max- 
imum light  is  approached  ;  hence  the  burner  should  not  be 
turned  low,  since  the  products  of  incomplete  combustion 
vitiate  the  air. 

3.  Perfection  of  combustion  also  depends  upon  sufficient 
access  of  air  to  the  wick  where  the  burning  occurs.     This 
is  attained  in  two  ways:     (a)   By  round  wicks  with  air- 
space inside  as  well  as  outside  —  (the  Argand  and  student 
lamps  are  of  this  type).      (6)  By  the  access  of  air  to  both 
sides  of  the  flat  wick  —  (the  duplex  burner,  with  double  flat 
wick  and   extinguisher,   is   the  type  most  used) .     A  good 
burner  allows  the  air  to  enter  freely  at  the  base,  and  hence 
the  small  apertures  must  not  become  clogged. 

Welsbach  burners  favor  complete  combustion  as  well  as 
greatly  increase  the  light. 

Since  it  is  estimated  that  one  third  of  the  fires  which 
occur  are  caused  by  kerosene  lamps,  it  may  not  be  out  of 
place  to  mention  some  precautions  as  to  their  use. 

Kerosene  is  obtained  by  distilling  crude  petroleum,  which 
consists  of  a  variety  of  inflammable  and  more  or  less  vola- 
tile liquids.  The  more  volatile  give  the  most  brilliant 
light  (such  as  gasoline  used  in  the  gas-machines  in  country 
houses) ,  and  are  of  less  commercial  value,  so  that  it  is  for  the 
interest  of  the  refiner  to  allow  as  much  as  possible  of  these 
more  volatile  products  to  remain  with  the  kerosene. 


LIGHTING.  49 

The  vapor  of  these  volatile  portions  mixes  readily  with  air, 
and  mixtures  thus  formed  explode  violently  when  ignited. 

Some  of  the  cheaper  kerosenes  on  the  market  will 
give  off  inflammable  vapors  when  the  oil  is  heated  to  90°  or 
100°  F.  That  is,  if  the  reservoir  of  the  lamp,  with  the 
burner  and  wick  removed,  were  half  filled  with  kerosene 
and  placed  in  a  dish  of  warm  water,  when  the  oil  was  warmed 
to  90°  or  1 00°  F.  the  space  above  the  reservoir  would  be 
filled  with  a  vapor  which  would  explode  if  a  lighted  match 
were  brought  in  contact  with  it,  and  if  the  lamp  were 
broken  and  the  oil  spilled,  it  would  burn  freely,  setting  fire 
to  whatever  it  reached. 

Since  it  is  not  uncommon  to  have  lamps  near  the  stove, 
and  since,  especially  with  a  lamp-shade,  much  heat  is 
reflected  downwards,  it  will  be  seen  that  a  temperature  of 
90°  to  100°  F.  is  not  unfrequently  attained. 

The  only  real  safety  is  to  use  an  oil  which  will  not  give 
off  inflammable  vapor  at  any  temperature  which  will  prob- 
ably be  reached.  Oil  which  can  be  heated  to  140°  F.  without 
yielding  this  vapor  will  not  take  fire  even  if  the  lamp  is 
broken  and  the  oil  spilled  ;  it  will  only  burn  at  the  wick, 
where  it  is  heated  much  more. 

The  different  state  laws  fix  the  temperature  (called  the 
"  flashing  point"),  below  which  the  oil  must  not  give  off 
these  inflammable  vapors,  at  different  degrees  from  100°  to 
130°.  120°  would  seem  to  be  a  good  mean. 

To  blow  the  flame  strongly  is  to  run  the  risk  of  driving 
it  down  into  the  reservoir.  A  second  opening  in  the  lamp 
for  filling  is  rarely  tight,  and  vapors  are  apt  to  escape ;  the 
oil  also  "  creeps"  over  the  lamp,  and  thus  vapors  may  be 
given  off  which  vitiate  the  air,  even  if  no  explosion  occurs. 
There  is  also  a  temptation  to  fill  the  lamp  while  lighted. 


$0  HOME   SANITATION. 

QUESTIONS. 

1.  Is  an   abundance   of  pure   air  introduced  into  every 
room  in  which  a  lamp  or  a  gas-jet  is  burning,  to  make  up 
for  the  oxygen  consumed  by  the  flame  ? 

2.  Is  sufficient   precaution  taken  to  provide  means   for 
the  quick  removal  of  the  gases  generated  by  the  flame  ? 

Note.  —  In  case  stationary  gas-jets  are  used  it  is  prac- 
ticable to  have  the  products  of  combustion  carried  out  of 
the  room  by  means  of  flues. 

3.  If  kerosene  is  used, — 

(a)  Do  you  use  oil  of  120°  F.  flash  test,  as  shown  by 
standard  instruments? 

(3)    Do  you  take  care  to  select  the  best  burner  possible  ? 

(c)  Does   the  burner  have  some  mechanical   means   of 
putting  out  the  flame  ? 

(d)  If  not,  is  care  taken  to  turn  the   flame    down    and 
blow  across  the  top  of  the  chimney  and  never  directly  down 
into  it? 

(e)  Are  the  burners  boiled  occasionally    in  water  con- 
taining a  little  washing  soda,  to  prevent  creeping  of  the  oil, 
as  well  as  to  clean  them  ? 

(f)  Are  you  careful  not  to  leave   the   lamps   with   the 
flame  turned  down? 

(^•)  Do  you  change  the  wicks  often?  They  strain  out 
impurities  and  soon  become  clogged. 

(h)  Are  "  packed  lamps,"  which  have  wicking  saturated 
with  oil  and  no  liquid,  provided  for  carrying  about  the 
house  ? 

(i)  Are  the  servants  cautioned  never  to  fill  a  kerosene- 
lamp  near  a  fire  or  burning  lamp  ? 

4.  If  gas  is  used, — 


LIGHTING.  5 1 

(a)  Are  the  gas-pipes  and  fixtures  tight,  so  that  no  gas 
can  escape  into  the  room  and  vitiate  the  air? 

Note.  —  The  tarnishing  of  silver  is  a  good  indicator. 

(<5)  Are  the  modern  gas  globes  used,  with  large  open- 
ings at  the  bottom,  in  order  to  secure  a  steady  flame? 

(c)  If  metal  tips  are  used  are  they  frequently  renewed  ? 
Note.  —  Lava  tips  last  longer,  but  are  liable  to  crack  and 

clog. 

(d)  Is   the   gas-cock  so  arranged  that    it  will    turn    no 
farther  when  the  stream  of  gas  is  shut  off? 

Note.  —  Gas-cocks  without  a  stop  turn  all  the  way 
round,  and  it  is  difficult  to  know  when  the  gas  is  shut  off. 
Probably  more  fatal  accidents  arise  from  this  cause  than 
from  blowing  out  the  gas. 

(e)  If  a  drop-light  is  used,  with  a  rubber  tube,  are  you 
careful  to  detach  and  air  the  tube  frequently? 

(f)  Is  especial  care  taken  that  a  match  is  lighted  and 
ready  to  apply  before  the  gas  is  turned  on,  in  order  that 
none  may  escape  to  vitiate  the  air  unnecessarily  ? 


52  HOME   SANITATION. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

FURNISHING. 

IT  may  be  assuming  too  much  to  claim  that  the  true 
standard  of  beauty  in  house-furnishings  conforms 
strictly  to  that  required  for  the  best  sanitary  conditions,  but, 
surely,  it  is  not  extreme  to  declare  emphatically  that  the 
conventional  standard  is  far  from  being  one  either  of  beauty 
or  of  health.  Pure  air  and  sunshine,  two  essentials  of 
healthful  living,  cannot  be  obtained  in  full  measure  in  the 
modern  elaborately  furnished  house.  And  a  common  and 
growing  mistake  is  this  of  using  our  houses  chiefly  as  a 
means  of  displaying  the  objects  which  our  tastes  and  our 
wealth  permit  us  to  procure,  while  we  disregard  the  far 
more  important  claims  of  good  health.  "  The  first  wealth 
is  health,"  says  Emerson.  Our  homes  are  preeminently  for 
ourselves.  Why  should  we  turn  them  into  show-rooms, 
that  our  neighbors  may  come  and  gape? 

The  canons  of  good  taste  everywhere  demand  simplicity 
and  adaptability  as  their  true  basis.  Furnishings  which 
destroy  comfort  and  injure  health  cannot,  when  judged  by 
this  rule,  be  recognized  as  truly  beautiful. 

That  furnishings  may  destroy  comfort  cannot  be  denied 
by  any  woman  who  has  found  herself  penned  in  an  over- 
furnished  room,  where  the  mere  act  of  turning  around  is 
attended  by  direful  consequences  in  the  shape  of  overturned 
Lares  and  Penates. 

But  how  can  furnishings  injure  health? 


FURNISHING.  53 

(a)     By  preventing  free  access  of  light  and  air. 

(6)  By  laying  unnecessary  work  on  the  shoulders  of  the 
busy  housewife,  so  that  the  proper  care  of  her  home  be- 
comes a  burden  to  her. 

(c)  By  forming  catch-alls  for  dust.  Dust  is  composed 
of  many  widely  different  things  :  particles  of  carbon  (soot), 
of  granite,  sand,  or  other  mineral  matter;  pollen  of  flowers, 
bits  of  plant  stems,  bark,  leaves ;  manure,  small  pieces  of 
hair,  dried  skin,  shreds  of  clothing,  and  microscopic  forms  of 
life  such  as  bacteria  and  molds  —  these  are  some  of  the 
almost  infinite  possiblities  of  dust.  The  housekeeper's 
concern  is  centred  on  the  miscroscopic  forms  of  life  in  dust. 
Some  of  these  germs  can  attack  the  human  body,  causing 
disease.  Others  work  in  kitchen  and  store-room  and  are 
responsible  for  the  souring,  fermentation,  decay,  and  mold- 
ing of  foods.  Moreover,  dust,  when  decomposing  under 
the  influence  of  heat  and  moisture,  is  one  source  of  the 
close,  stuffy  odor  often  noticed  in  ill-ventilated  or  heavily 
furnished  rooms.  Hence  the  only  safe  course  is  to  dis- 
countenance dust  in  every  case. 

It  is  obviously  impracticable  to  formulate  hard  and  fast 
rules  as  regards  furnishings.  It  must  rest  with  the  judg- 
ment of  each  housekeeper  to  determine  how  rigidly  the  law 
of  simplicity  shall  be  applied.  Where  many  servants  are  at 
hand  to  do  the  extra  work  imposed  by  elaborate  furnishings 
there  is  no  reason  for  excluding  objects  of  beauty,  — carved 
woods,  rare  bric-a-brac,  rich  hangings,  —  which  by  their 
presence  afford  us  daily  pleasure.  But  when  proper  care 
cannot  be  given  to  such  accessories,  let  them  be  sacrificed* 
unquestioningly,  on  the  altars  of  comfort  and  cleanliness. 
Simply  remember  the  raison  d'etre  of  furnishings  and  it  will 
be  impossible  to  go  far  astray.  They  are  agents  to  minister 


54  HOME   SANITATION. 

to  our  comfort  or  our  pleasure.  So  soon  as  their  proper 
care  becomes  a  burden  to  the  housekeeper,  so  soon  as  she 
allows  her  furnishings  to  crowd  and  elbow  her  in  her  own 
home,  she  has  reversed  the  proper  relationship :  she  has  not 
conquered,  but  succumbed  to  her  environment.  Let  each 
housewife  be  master  of  her  furnishings  —  else  will  she  be 
their  slave  ! 

In  general,  then,  emphasis  should  be  laid  on  simplicity 
both  for  the  sake  of  comfort  and  for  the  sake  of  cleanliness. 
The  following  suggestions  serve  to  show  how  these  ends 
may  be  attained : 

Floors.  —  Carpets  entirely  covering  the  floor  cannot  be 
kept  thoroughly  clean,  and  are,  moreover,  a  constant  temp- 
tation to  the  economical  housewife  to  exclude  the  sun. 
Mattings  and  loosely  woven  carpets  allow  dust  to  sift 
through  them  to  the  floor  beneath,  whence  it  cannot  be 
removed.  Hard  polished  or  painted  floors,  with  rugs,  are 
preferable  to  carpets  or  mattings.  And  the  amount  of  care 
required  by  bare  floors  is  little  more  than  that  demanded  by 
carpets  which,  to  be  thoroughly  cleaned,  must  be  taken  up 
at  each  annual  or  semi-annual  house-cleaning. 

Walls,  Ceilings,  Woodwork.  —  Each  should  be  so  fin- 
ished as  to  be  easily  kept  free  from  dust.  To  this  end  it  is 
advisable  to  have  the  inside  woodwork,  walls,  and  ceilings 
smooth  and  of  a  nature  to  permit  thorough  cleaning. 

Windows.  —  These  are  for  the  purpose  of  admitting 
light,  and  sometimes  air.  This  purpose  cannot  be  accom- 
plished where,  as  is  not  uncommon,  they  are  barricaded 
with  two  sets  of  blinds,  two  sets  of  shades,  and  lace  curtains 
or  heavy  draperies.  If  their  owners  would  take  away  half 
these  barriers  and  leave  the  others  raised  and  open,  the  good 
cheer  and  vigorous  life  which  stream  in  with  the  sunshine 


FURNISHING.  55 

would  speedily  convert  regret  at  the  loss  into  rejoicing  at 
the  greater  gain. 

Furniture  and  Hangings.  — The  woodwork  of  furni- 
ture, even  the  concealed  surfaces,  should  be  smooth,  and 
varnished  or  oiled,  to  prevent  the  lodging  of  dust  and  the 
absorption  of  gases.  On  this  account,  also,  the  use  of 
upholstered  furniture  or  of  heavy  woolen  draperies  of  loose 
texture  which  cannot  be  easily  freed  from  dust  should  be 
reduced  to  the  lowest  possible  point. 

QUESTIONS. 
/.      General. 

1 .  Is  the  inside  finish  of  the  house  as  free  as  possible  from 
horizontal  projections,  such  as  elaborate  cornices  and  man- 
tels, which  may  serve  as  lodging-places  for  dust? 

2.  Are  the  walls  finished  with  paint  or  with  smooth  paper 
which  can  be  easily  freed  from  dust  by  the  use  of  a  wall- 
mop? 

Note.  —  A  good  wall-mop  may  be  made  by  fastening  a 
soft  cloth  firmly  around  a  broom,  or  by  drawing  over  it  a 
bag  of  Canton  flannel. 

3.  Are  the  wall-papers,  draperies,  and  carpets  free  from 
arsenic  ? 

4.  Since  dust  sifts  through  mattings  and  loosely  woven 
carpets,  are  the  floors  laid  with  closely  matched  boards,  even 
where  they  are  to  be  covered  ? 

5.  In  case  rugs  or  carpets  covering  only  a  portion  of  the 
floor  are  not  adopted,  are  the  edges  of  the  carpet  frequently 
cleaned  after  sweeping,   by  the  use  of  a  damp  sponge  or 
cloth? 

6.  If  there  h  a  carpet  under  the  dining-room  table,  is  it 
occasionally  sent  to  the  naphtha  laundry  to  be  cleansed  ? 


56  HOME   SANITATION. 

7.  Are  the  inside  shutters  made  without  slats? 

8.  Are  the  Venetian  blinds  banished  to  the  piazza  ? 

9.  Are  the  windows  of  all  rooms  so  curtained  as  to  per- 
mit free  admission  of  the  sunlight,  and  to  offer  scant  hospi- 
tality to  dust  ? 

10.  Are  hangings  and   draperies  so  arranged    as  to  be 
easily  taken  down  and  shaken? 

n.    Is  the  upholstered  furniture  made  without  tufting,  so 
that  it  can  be  thoroughly  cleaned  by  brushing? 

1 2.  Do  the  living-rooms  contain  neither  furniture  nor  orna- 
ments which  cannot  be  properly  cared  for  by  daily  dusting? 

13.  Are  clothes-presses,  cupboards,  and  store-rooms  kept 
free  from  dust,  mold,  and  accumulations  of  rubbish? 

II.      The  Bed-rooms. 

1.  Are  useless  ornaments  and  needle- work  banished  from 
the  bed- rooms? 

2.  Have   the   windows   such    curtains    only    as    can    be 
washed  ? 

3.  Is  the  air  allowed  to  circulate  freely  around  the  beds, 
unobstructed  by  curtains? 

4.  Are  mattresses  substituted  for  feather-beds  ? 

5.  Are  mattresses  and  pillows  aired  daily,  often  turned 
and  dusted,  occasionally  cleansed  with  naphtha,  or  other- 
wise, and  frequently  exposed  in  the  open  air  on  a  sunny  day 
for  several  consecutive  hours? 

6.  Are  the  bed-coverings  of  material  which  can  be  washed  ? 

7.  Are  they  thoroughly  aired  every  morning? 

8.  If  mantel-beds  or  folding-beds  must  be  used,  are  they 
so  made  as  to  allow,  when  folded,  the  circulation  of  air  about 
the  mattress  ? 

9.  Are  soiled  clothes  removed  at  once  from  the  sleeping- 
rooms  ? 


FURNISHING.  57 

III.      The  Bath-room. 

1 .  Has  the  bath-room  a  tiled,  oiled,  or  painted  floor,  with 
no  other  carpet  than  a  rug  which  is  often  aired  out  of  doors? 

2.  Are  its  walls  finished  with  tiles,  paint,  or  varnished 
paper,  to  prevent  the  absorption  of  moisture  and  odors? 

3.  Are  those  receptacles  for  dust  and  rubbish,  the  drawers 
and  cupboard  usually  connected  with  the  set-bowl,  exchanged 
for  a  wall-cupboard  ? 

4.  In  summer,  does  the  fly-screen  cover  the  whole  win- 
dow, so  that  the  upper  sash  can  be  lowered  as  well  as  the 
lower  one  raised  ? 


IV.     The  Kitchen. 

1.  Is  the  kitchen  floor  either  oiled,  painted,  or  covered 
with  oilcloth,  or  other  impervious  covering? 

Note.  —  Oilcloth  carpets  must  be  fitted  closely  to  the  wall, 
in  order  that  dust  may  not  collect  under  the  edges.  Great 
care  should  be  exercised  in  washing  them,  lest  water  run 
under  the  edges. 

2.  Are  the  walls  made  proof  against  moisture  and  odors 
by  tiles,  paint,  or  varnished  paper  ? 

3.  Is  the  kitchen  free  from  that  nuisance,  a  closet  under 
the  sink? 

Note.  —  This  closet  too  often  serves  an  untidy  servant  as 
a  place  of  concealment  for  unwashed  pots  and  pans,  soiled 
rags,  etc.,  and  is  an  attractive  spot  for  water-bugs. 

4.  Is  a  large,  light,  and  airy  pantry  substituted  for  the 
several    small,   dark    cupboards   which    usually  join    the 
kitchen? 

5.  Is  the  sink  of  porcelain,  soapstone,  or  iron? 


58  HOME   SANITATION. 

6.  Is  the  pipe  which  conveys  the  drippings  from  the  re- 
frigerator entirely  disconnected  from  the  drainage  system  of 
the  house  ? 

Note.  —  All  shelves,  boxes,  and  jars,  especially  refriger- 
ators, in  which  food  is  kept,  should  be  kept  with  the  most 
scrupulous  care,  and  usually  only  the  "  eternal  vigilance" 
of  the  mistress  herself  will  accomplish  this. 


THE  COUNTRY  HOUSE.  59 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE    COUNTRY    HOUSE. 

In  deciding  upon  a  country  home,  the  first  consideration 
is  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  underlying  rock  forma- 
tion, since  the  artificial  drains  and  careful  grading  of  the 
city  engineer  are  wanting. 

If  the  soil  is  clayey,  or  has  an  impervious  clayey  layer  a 
a  short  distance  below  the  surface,  then  at  certain  seasons  of 
the  year  water  is  liable  to  stand  for  some  time  in  pools  and 
even  to  penetrate  to  the  cellar.  This  class  of  soils  also 
allows  surface  drainage  to  run  for  long  distances  along  its 
impervious  surface  and  so  to  reach  wells  at  some  distance 
from  the  source  of  the  water. 

A  slaty  rock  with  joints,  or  a  broken  conglomerate 
with  many  cracks,  also  allows  water  to  percolate  for  long 
distances,  while  a  deep,  sandy  soil  presents  the  most  favor- 
able conditions  for  two  reasons  in  particular :  First.  The 
porous  nature  of  such  soil  allows  of  quick  drainage  of  rain- 
water, so  that  the  cellar  and  surrounding  soil  may  be  always 
fairly  dry,  with  no  stagnant  water.  Second.  Such  soil 
allows  of  the  ready  purification  of  all  polluting  material 
which  is  buried  in  it  or  flows  through  it,  so  that  the  out- 
flowing water  is  freed  from  its  former  harmful  ingredients. 
This  is  accomplished,  as  we  now  understand,  by  an  abun- 
dance of  plant-life  of  a  peculiar  character  in  the  upper  layers 
of  the  soil.  This  plant-life  is  most  abundant  in  the  first  two 
feet  and  in  sandy  loam. 


60  HOME  SANITATION. 

When  these  plants,  known  as  nitrifying  organisms,  have 
plenty  of  air,  they  convert  into  harmless  nitrates  all  the 
putrefying  nitrogenous  matter  brought  to  them  ;  but  they 
cannot  do  their  beneficent  work  if  they  are  smothered  in 
water,  or  otherwise  deprived  of  air.  In  that  case  other  less 
desirable  plants  thrive  and  work,  and  noxious  products  may 
result.  Hence,  it  is  necessary,  for  quick  and  complete  puri- 
fication, that  a  drenching  of  the  soil  with  water  which  car- 
ries anything  organic  and  liable  to  decompose  (and  what 
water  does  not  which  washes  the  surface  of  the  ground?) 
should  be  followed  by  a  period  in  which  air,  and  not  water, 
may  penetrate  to  a  considerable  depth,  thus  furnishing  the 
needed  oxvgen  for  the  nitrifying  plant  to  grow  and  to  free 
the  water  from  its  harmful  organic  matter. 

For  this  reason,  the  sink  spout,  so  often  seen  in  country 
farmhouses,  delivering  dirty  water  at  all  hours  of  the  day 
on  one  spot,  resulting  in  a  wet,  soggy  soil,  should  be  moved 
at  its  outlet  each  day,  so  that  a  new  area  of  soil  may  receive 
the  water  while  the  old  one  is  doing  its  work  of  purification. 
In  from  three  to  five  days,  according  to  the  depth  of  the 
sand  or  loam,  the  same  spot  is  ready  for  another  flooding. 

Because  of  this  same  characteristic  of  the  beneficent  plant- 
life,  the  leaching  cesspool  is  wrong  in  principle,  since  it 
delivers  its  foul  liquid  below  the  level  at  which  the  most 
vigorous  plant  growth  occurs,  and  thus  allows  this  unpuri- 
fied  water  to  mingle  with  the  underground  water,  which  is 
commonly  held  to  be  good  because  of  its  freedom  from 
surface  contamination.  The  leaching  cesspool,  carrying 
filth  below  the  surface,  is  a  backward  step  from  savage 
life,  which  threw  its  refuse  on  the  surface.  The  purifying 
power  of  the  upper  layers  of  the  soil  is  enormous,  and  should 
be  utilized  by  all  country  dwellers  to  the  profit  of  the  agri- 


THE  COUNTRY   HOUSE.  6 1 

cultural  crop  which  feeds  on  the  nitrates  that  are  the  prod- 
uct of  this  other  invisible  plant-life. 

The  earth-closet  takes  advantage  of  this  property,  and 
every  country  house  should  possess  this  means  of  sanitation. 
Plenty  of  absorbent  loam  can  be  brought  from  the  fields  in 
dry  weather,  and  when  further  dried  in  barn  or  shed  can  be 
used  to  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  closets  and  chamber 
slops  and  then  removed  to  the  fields  and  replaced  by  fresh 
earth.  If  iron  tanks  on  trucks  are  used  this  may  be  readily 
done  as  often  as  necessary.  In  a  large  country  house  this 
method  necessitates  a  separate  drainage  system  for  the  bath- 
tubs, laundry-tubs,  and  sinks.  When  some  spot  of  land, 
sloping  away  from  the  house  and  at  a  distance  of  500  feet  or 
more,  can  be  found  to  which  a  large  amount  of  water  may 
be  carried  by  pipes  and  automatically  distributed  to  the  ad- 
vantage of  trees  and  crops  it  is  possible  to  dispose  safely  of 
all  house  drainage.  This  is  the  simplest  way  of  caring  for 
it,  and  is  called,  technically,  surface,  or  broad  irrigation. 
This  is  perfectly  safe  and  successful  only  when  the  prin- 
ciples referred  to  are  scrupulously  followed:  namely  (i), 
the  quick  disappearance  of  the  water  from  the  surface  and 
no  overdosing  of  any  one  spot;  (2)  the  utilization  of  the 
prepared  food  by  growing  trees  or  crops.  The  accumula- 
tions of  the  winter  under  the  ice  are  quickly  disposed  of  by 
the  vigorous  growth  of  spring. 

Because  of  the  porosity  of  the  ground  and  the  rather  free 
circulation  of  water  below  the  surface,  wells  are  peculiarly 
liable  to  be  contaminated  when  ignorantly  placed  in  close 
juxtaposition  to  the  house  and  its  waste  drains.  Too  great 
care  cannot  be  taken  of  the  surroundings,  even  for  a  con- 
siderable distance. 

Having  secured  a    house    on    this    well-drained     area, 


62  HOME   SANITATION. 

with  free  circulation  of  air  and  sufficient  sunlight,  unhindered 
by  close-growing  trees,  it  only  remains  to  carry  out  the 
suggestions  in  the  previous  chapters,  and  to  see  to  the  con- 
ditions surrounding  the  barn,  the  dairy,  the  vegetable-house, 
etc.  If,  as  is  often  the  case,  the  waste-water  from  the  well 
falls  upon  the  ground  at  its  mouth,  it  should  be  carried  away 
by  a  cement  or  other  impervious  drain.  The  mouth  of  the 
well  should  be  protected  from  any  surface  leakage ;  it  is 
advisable  to  place  a  layer  of  cement  on  the  outside  of  the 
stone  or  brick  curb,  which  should  rise  a  foot  or  two  above 
the  surface  and  extend  two  or  three  feet  below.  This 
cement  will  also  serve  to  keep  out  the  angle-worms  and 
other  small  creatures  which  are  liable  to  fall  into  the  well. 
The  well  should  never  be  used  for  cold  storage.  The  prac- 
tice of  hanging  dressed  meat,  poultry,  and  milk-cans  in  the 
well  should  never  be  tolerated.  There  is  too  much  risk  in 
such  methods,  for  wholesome  drinking-water  is  becoming 
one  of  the  most  precious  possessions  of  mankind. 

To  lack  of  cleanliness  is  due  most  of  the  trouble  from 
milk  as  a  agent  of  the  spread  of  disease. 

In  places  where  it  is  not  the  custom  to  have  cellars,  it  is 
only  necessary  to  emphasize  the  importance  of  a  free  circu- 
lation of  air  under  the  house.  It  is  possible  to  live  even 
over  water,  provided  this  air-space  is  sufficient  to  keep  the 
floor  from  becoming  sodden  and  moldy. 

This  lack  of  air-space  is  the  bane  of  country  buildings  in 
the  northern  United  States.  For  the  sake  of  protection  from 
freezing  in  winter,  the  house,  or  portions  of  it,  rest  on  the 
ground,  or  are  banked  up  so  that  no  circulation  of  air  is 
possible.  In  other  portions  of  the  country,  where  this 
necessity  for  warmth  does  not  exist,  the  danger  frequently 
comes  from  this  space  being  used  as  a  refuse  heap. 


HOUSE   INSPECTION.  63 

Clean  soil  is  the  primary  factor  in  the  possibility  of  clean 
air  and  clean  water.  It  is  only  ignorance  of  sanitary  prin- 
ciples which  causes  the  deplorable  conditions  so  often  found 
in  the  country,  conditions  which  a  little  knowledge  could 
remedy  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  health  of  the  family. 

If  the  water-supply  is  brought  from  a  mountain  spring  it 
should,  if  soft,  be  conveyed  in  wooden  or  tin  pipes,  since 
such  water  is  liable  to  dissolve  lead  or  brass  pipe  in  such 
measure  as  to  be  dangerous. 

HOUSE    INSPECTION. 

If  a  house  ready  built  is  to  be  rented  or  purchased,  it  is 
not  sufficient  that  the  style  of  architecture  and  the  social 
aspect  of  the  locality  be  considered.  The  seeker  for  a 
house  which  is  also  to  be  a  beautiful  home  must  carefully 
consider  the  far  more  important  points  of  character  of  soil, 
age  of  house,  honesty  of  construction,  style  of  plumbing 
and  of  heating  apparatus,  and  the  possibilities  of  sunlight 
and  air. 

Until  there  is  opened  in  every  city  and  town  an  office  from 
which  trained  inspectors  can  be  obtained,  —  men  or  women 
who  understand  what  living  in  a  house  means,  and  what 
dangers  come  in  the  using  of  apparatus  which  while  new 
and  untried  seems  to  be  correct  in  principle,  —  until  then  the 
house-hunter  must  herself  understand  the  cardinal  points  of 
safety. 

Under  all  circumstances  dampness,  darkness,  and  dust- 
catchers  are  to  be  avoided,  and  as  much  sunlight,  as  dry  a 
soil,  as  free  circulation  of  air  as  possible,  and  as  much 
opportunity  for  a  generous  use  of  soap  and  water  without 
injury  to  anything,  are  to  be  desired. 

Therefore   look   to  the  condition  of  street,    yard,    rain- 


64  HOME   SANITATION. 

gutters,  cellar-walls,  cellar-floor,  and  dark  closets,  if  any. 
Note  if  there  is  any  appearance  of  mold  —  the  odor  will 
usually  betray  it ;  of  leaks  in  walls  or  roof.  Note  the  sun 
plan ;  that  is,  the  hours  in  the  day  during  which  the  sun  can 
shine  into  each  room  both  winter  and  summer,  remembering 
that  sunlight  is  nature's  disinfectant  as  well  as  life-giver. 

Note  relation  of  windows  to  the  prevailing  direction  of 
the  wind. 

Note  character  of  interior  construction  and  finish  with 
reference  to  holding  dust. 

Examine  the  drainage  plan  from  attic  to  cellar.  Never 
move  into  a  house  the  drainage  pipes  of  which  are  so  built 
in  that  they  cannot  be  readily  seen.  Note  the  traps,  the 
slope  of  the  main  pipes,  etc. 

Secure  a  written  statement  from  the  city  inspector  ;  if  pos- 
sible, be  present  when  the  inspection  is  made. 

Every  housewife  should  know  the  "  sewer  odor  ;  "  it  is  as 
characteristic  as  that  of  onions. 

Examine  the  heating  apparatus  ;  note  if  the  cold-air  box, 
etc.,  answers  to  the  requirements  given  in  Chapter  V. 

Note  the  possibilities  of  obtaining  a  quick  change  of  air 
in  every  room. 

Carefully  inspect  the  apparatus  for  water-supply  —  the 
tank  in  the  attic,  if  there  is  one  (each  water-closet  must 
have  its  own  separate  flush-tank)  ;  avoid  the  use  of  a  well  in 
any  thickly  settled  region.  Learn  from  competent  author- 
ity if  the  town  supply  is  well  cared  for.  Beware  of  house 
filters ;  water,  that  prime  necessity  of  human  life,  should  be 
like  Caesar's  wife  —  above  suspicion. 


SANITARY   PRECAUTIONS.  6$ 


CHAPTER  IX. 

SANITARY    PRECAUTIONS. 

The  first  axiom  of  modern  sanitation  is  that  prevention  is 
better  than  cure.  Disease  may  be  prevented  by  sanitary 
cleanliness.  This  means,  first,  the  free  use  of  the  two 
great  natural  disinfectants,  pure,  sun-dried  air,  andjire; 
second,  the  quick  removal  of  dirt.  Sanitary  law  is  often 
flagrantly  violated  by  throwing  the  dust  gathered  in  sweep- 
ing a  house,  and  especially  a  schoolhouse,  into  the  street 
or  on  the  ash-pile  in  the  yard,  whence  the  four  winds  of 
heaven  distribute  it  through  the  neighborhood.  Possible 
agents  of  disease  are  removed  if  all  dust  is  burned  and  all 
clothing  and  rooms  are  kept  constantly  disinfected  by  air 
and  sunlight. 

The  second  axiom  is  that  if  disease  has  appeared  it  must 
be  confined  to  the  person  or  spot  where  it  first  showed  itself. 
This  requires  isolation  of  the  person  and  place  until  both 
have  been  thoroughly  disinfected.  Nothing  in  all  sanitary 
science  is  so  well  established  as  the  possibility  of  stamping 
out  disease  in  this  manner,  and  in  nothing  is  the  average 
public  so  careless,  because  so  ignorant  or  so  indolent. 

Suspicious  cases  of  even  trivial  diseases,  like  certain 
forms  of  eczema  and  sore  eyes,  should  be  promptly  isolated. 
The  use  of  separate  towels,  and  special  care  in  keeping  the 
hands  clean,  would  save  untold  suffering  and  annoyance. 
Proper  precautions  should  be  taken  with  such  diseases  as 
well  as  with  the  more  dangerous  cases  like  scarlet  fever. 


66  HOME   SANITATION. 

y 

The  present  prevalence  of  consumption  is  due  largely  to 
a  lack  of  sanitary  precautions  in  the  past.  The  soil,  houses, 
and  clothing  shave  all  been  infected  to  a  great  extent,  and 
not  only  'will  years  of  education  be  needed  to  teach  the 
proper  management  of  the  disease,  but  also  generations  of 
effort  will  have  to  be  put  forth  to  eradicate  the  disease. 

Children  should  be  taught  sanitary  cleanliness  from  the 
-earliest  years,  and  the  whole  community  should  be  roused 
to  the  needlessness  of  much  of  the  sickness  which  prevails, 
and  of  the  deaths  caused  by  carelessness  and  ignorance. 

Chemical  disinfection  means  the  quick  killing  of  all  germs. 
Corrosive  sublimate  (mercuric  chloride),  long  known  to  the 
housewife  as  bed-bug  poison,  is  a  very  efficient  germ-de- 
stoyer.  Unfortunately  it  is  also  fatal  to  human  life  if  taken 
internally,  and  hence  must  be  used  with  caution.  One  part 
of  the  solid  in  500  parts  of  water  makes  a  solution  in  which 
no  germ  can  survive. 

Infected  clothing  may  be  soaked  in  this  solution  before 
washing,  and  woodwork  may  be  wiped  with  it.  Even 
the  skin,  if  not  broken,  may  safely  be  bathed  with  it.  As  it 
is  odorless  and  efficient,  the  housewife  should  make  herself 
conversant  with  its  safe  use. 

"  Chloride  of  lime"  and  "chlorinated  soda"  are,  in 
strong  solution,  efficient  disinfectants,  but  both  injure  met- 
als and  fabrics. 

Of  the  other  disinfectants  in  the  market  some  have  their 
appropriate  use  in  certain  cases.  For  instance,  after  a  room 
has  become  infected  it  must  be  fumigated  by  some  gas 
which  will  penetrate  every  part.  The  fumes  of  burning 
sulphur  are  often  used,  but  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  air 
damp  and  the  fumes  in  great  amount. 

Formalin,  or  formaldehyde,  is  now  much  used  for  this 


SANITARY   PRECAUTIONS.  6/ 

purpose,  but  similar  precautions  as  to  quantity  and  effici- 
ency are  needed. 

Permanganate  of  potash,  and  copperas,  or  iron  sulphate, 
have  a  power  of  destroying  organic  matter  which  may  be 
utilized  in  many  ways. 

Steam  and  hot  soapsuds  are  also  efficient  in  many  cases. 
In  the  list  of  books  for  further  study  many  references  will 
be  found ;  while  the  latest  investigations  are  reported  in 
the  various  health  journals. 


68  HOME   SANITATION. 

QUESTIONS. 

1 .  Do  you  quietly  supervise  the  weekly  dietary,  so  that 
a   due   proportion   of  the   essential   food-elements   are    set 
before  the  family  in  a  palatable  form? 

2.  Is  the  proportion  of  the  nitrogenous  part  to  the  starch, 
sugar,  and  fats,  about  one  to  four  ? 

3.  When  planning  the  food  do  you  bear  in    mind    the 
changes  necessitated  by  the  great  variations  of  climate,  and 
do  you  adapt  the  dietary  to  the  season  ? 

4.  Do  you,  for   instance,  provide  fruit   and  vegetables, 
instead   of  puddings    and    rich    entrees    during   the    early 
spring ;   fish  sometimes,  instead  of  meat,  during  the  early 
summer  days  ? 

5.  In  the  early  fall  do  you  keep  close  watch  over   the 
fruit  and  vegetables  to  see  that  they  are  ripe  and  yet  fresh? 

6.  In  the  late  fall  do  you  give  the  most  generous  diet  of 
the  year? 

7.  Do   you  provide   the  children  with  pure    milk,    and 
with  food  containing  mineral  salts  ? 

8.  Do  you  see  that  the  old   people   are   provided   with 
easily  digested  food,  so  as  not  to  fnvite  disease  by  overtaxing 
the  digestive  organs? 

9.  Are  you  careful  in  respect  to  the  use  of  tea  and  coffee 
by  young  people  ? 

10.  Do  you  know  definitely  the  source  and  surroundings 
of  the  water-supply  ? 

1 1 .  Do  you  take  especial  care  to  have  the  water  which 
has  been  standing  in  the  pipe  over  night  drawn  off  before 
the  breakfast-kettle  is  filled  ? 

12.  Do  you  make  sure  that  the  tea-kettle  is  emptied  and 
rinsed  the  first  thing  each  morning  ? 


SANITARY   PRECAUTIONS.  69 

13.  Do  you  positively  forbid  the  use  of  water  from  the 
hot-water  tank  for  cooking  ? 

14.  Do  you  avoid  the  use  of  all  soldered  vessels  for  heat- 
ing water? 

15.  Are  all  tanks  or  other  vessels  containing  water  to  be 
used  for  drinking  or  cooking  so  placed  as  not  to  be  exposed 
to  foul  air? 

1 6.  If  you  use  water  from  a  well,  has  it  been  subjected  to 
a  chemical  examination? 

17.  If  not,  have  you  evaporated  a  pint  or  a  quart  on  the 
stove  in  a  white  porcelain  or  china  dish  free  from  crackles 
and  failed  to  detect  any  odor  while  it  was  evaporating  or 
any  considerable  blackening  of  the  residue  when  quite  dry 
and  slightly  heated  ? 

Note.  —  Sewage  contamination  causes  a  bad  odor  in  such 
a  case,  and  surface-water  draining  into  a  well  will  cause  a 
dark  residue  which  "  chars  "  on  heating. 

1 8.  Do  you  look  carefully  after  the  surface  of  the  ground 
near  the  well,  and  see  that  no  drain  opens  near ;  that  no  slops 
are  thrown  out  in  the  vicinity  ;  and  that  the  cover  fits  tightly, 
so  that  crickets  and  the  like  cannot  make  their  way  in  ? 

19.  Is  the  well  so  situated  that  the  bottom  is  above  the 
cesspool,  barn-yard  or  outlet  of  the  sink  drain,  and  so  far 
from  them  as  to  avoid  suspicion  of  soaking? 

20.  Is  the  well  examined  each  spring  and  fall,  to  see  if 
anything  has  fallen  or  crawled  into  it? 

21.  If  the  water  is  stored  in  a  cistern,  are  the  roofs  and 
gutters  carefully  cleaned  from  dead  leaves? 

22.  If  the  water  is  brought  from  a  distant  spring,  is  it 
carried  in  iron  or  wooden  pipes,  not  in  lead  or  galvanized 
iron  ?  or,  if  in  lead,  do  you  know  that  it  is  not  acted  upon 
by  the  water  ? 


70  HOME   SANITATION. 

23.  Is  the  water  nearly  odorless  when  boiling? 

24.  Is  the  cistern  kept  carefully  cleaned  and  well  aired, 
and  is  it  accessible  ? 

25.  If  the  water  is  from  a  town  supply,  have  you  tested  it 
by  tying  a  square   of  clean  linen  over  the  faucet,  and  ex- 
amining, after  two  days'  use,  to  see  if  there  is  need  of  a  filter? 

Note.  —  This  simple  filter  is  very  good  ;  a  sand  or  char- 
coal filter  may  be  used.  It  should  not  be  a  complicated  one, 
however,  and  should  be  carefully  looked  after,  and  frequently 
cleaned.  In  case  of  an  epidemic  in  the  neighborhood  all 
water  should  be  boiled  before  it  is  used  for  drinking  or 
cooking. 


SANITARY    WORK    FOR   WOMEN.  7 1 


CHAPTER  X. 

SANITARY   WORK   FOR   WOMEN. 

A  paper  read  before  the  Association  of  Collegiate  Alumnae,  May  28,  1887, 
by  ANNIE  E.  ALLEN. 

1  ^VERY  woman  should  have  a  knowledge  of  sanitation 
I  ^  at  her  command.  Its  value  rests  not  only  on  its  gen- 
eral importance,  but  on  its  wide  applicability.  It 
is  essential  in  the  most  varied  social  relations.  Whether  a 
woman  is  selecting  a  dwelling-place  for  herself,  making  a 
home  for  others,  or  providing  the  surroundings  of  young 
children,  the  knowledge  and  observance  of  sanitary  laws  is 
a  requisite  for  the  satisfactory  fulfilment  of  her  duties.  In 
all  more  public  forms  of  responsibility  which  women  are 
called  upon  to  assume,  such  as,  work  upon  school  commit- 
tees, positions  either  upon  boards,  or  as  officials  of  penal 
and  charitable  institutions,  and  in  all  philanthropic  work,  a 
scientific  and  thorough  understanding  of  sanitation,  as  well 
as  of  hygiene,  is  the  only  solid  foundation  of  successful 
effort. 

Housekeepers.  It  is,  first  of  all,  to  women  as  house- 
keepers that  sanitary  science  is  valuable.  Our  social  order 
gives  to  most  women,  during  a  greater  portion  of  their  lives, 
the  responsibility  of  creating  and  preserving  the  conditions 
of  home  life.  Upon  these  conditions  depends,  in  large 
measure,  the  health  of  the  household,  especially  that  of 
young  children.  Personal  hygiene  is  also  an  essential  part 
of  any  successful  effort  to  secure  and  maintain  health.  But 


72  HOME   SANITATION. 

no  amount  of  hygienic  precaution  in  regard  to  clothing, 
bathing,  eating,  exercising,  and  sleeping  will  avail,  if  air  is 
provided  which  is  laden  with  organic  impurities  and  germs 
of  disease,  and  which  has  had  its  life-giving  properties 
exhausted  by  repeated  inhalations. 

The  Plumber.  When  the  housekeeper  has  a  plan  of 
every  inch  of  pipe  in  her  house,  and  the  plumbing  is  simple, 
accessible,  made  of  sound  material,  kept  clean  and  well 
ventilated  and  periodically  inspected,  there  will  be  little 
occasion  for  the  plumber.  But  a  knowledge  of  sanitary 
laws  enables  the  housekeeper  to  send  for  him  in  season,  to 
have  an  intelligent  oversight  of  his  work,  and  to  make  timely 
suggestions.  It  also  enables  her  to  understand  the  im- 
portance of  good  work  and  good  material,  and  the  false 
economy  of  accepting  poor  substitutes  for  these  essentials. 
It  brings  home  to  her  the  danger  of  postponing  the  expense 
or  trouble  of  calling  in  the  plumber  when  the  life  and 
Strength  of  the  household  are  at  stake. 

Servants.  The  housekeeper  has  a  serious  responsibility 
in  the  training  of  servants.  Many  of  them  will  have  homes 
of  their  own,  and  become  centres  of  wide-reaching  influ- 
ence under  conditions  which  make  habits  of  cleanliness  and 
watchfulness  of  the  greatest  importance. 

Summer  Resorts.  —  It  is  not  enough  for  the  house- 
holder in  the  city  or  country  house  to  know  that  at  home 
the  water-supply  is  pure  ;  the  air  uncontaminated  by  damp 
or  foul  ground-air  rising  through  the  cellar  and  house ; 
the  waste  products  carried  away  quickly  and  completely, 
and  their  foul  emanations  not  allowed  to  escape  back 
through  the  fixtures.  She  should  be  even  more  cautious 
at  seaside  or  country  resorts,  where  the  provisions  made 
for  the  few  brief  summer  months  are  notoriously  defective, 


SANITARY   WORK   FOR  WOMEN.  73 

and  where  the  presumption  is  against  anything  but  imper- 
fect arrangements.  Yet  people,  who  are  comparatively 
enlightened  in  these  matters  and  careful  at  home,  often  go 
to  such  places,  and  even  take  young  children,  without 
examining  the  water-supply  or  drainage.  They  content 
themselves  with  the  assurance  of  the  landlady,  or  at  most 
the  general  reputation  of  the  place  for  healthfulness,  with- 
out personal  inspection. 

Boarding-houses.  The  city  boarding-house  is  another 
possible  source  of  ill-health.  More  or  less  elaborate 
plumbing  is  demanded  by  the  relatively  large  household, 
and  the  expense  of  plumbing  increases  in  geometrical 
ratio  to  the  number  of  fixtures.  But  the  money-making 
object  of  the  building  can  be  met  only  by  great  apparent 
convenience  to  attract  boarders,  and  cheap  work  to  save 
cost. 

Duty  to  Self.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that,  while 
the  head  of  a  family  has  peculiar  and  complicated  respon- 
sibilities, the  individual,  in  selecting  her  own  boarding- 
place,  has  a  no  less  serious  duty  to  herself  and  to  her 
work  in  the  world,  in  guarding  her  health  by  a  wise  choice 
of  sanitary  surroundings,  and  by  such  precautions  as  are 
possible. 

Boarding-schools.  The  same  probability  of  danger  noted 
in  the  boarding-house  attends  the  boarding-school.  Simi- 
lar conditions  often  exist  of  a  building  originally  designed 
for  a  private  family,  and  afterwards  adapted  to  large  num- 
bers. This  is  likely  to  result  in  defective  plumbing ;  small, 
stuffy  recitation-rooms ;  dark  closets  for  outer  clothing ; 
damp,  narrow,  close  halls,  from  which  much  of  the  house 
is  furnished  with  such  air  as  it  gets.  The  head  of  a  private 
boarding-school  has  some  serious  and  difficult  problems  to 


74  HOME    SANITATION. 

solve  in  sanitary  science,  and  great  credit  is  due  to  many 
who  have  successfully  found  the  solution. 

Public  Schools.  The  teachers  in  our  public  schools 
almost  universally  suffer  from  inadequate  ventilation.  In 
the  school-rooms  are  children  to  whose  clothing  and  per- 
sons little  care  is  given,  and  the  drainage  system  is  often 
poorly  arranged  and  improperly  cared  for.  The  teacher  is 
comparatively  helpless.  Her  influence  can  be  only  indirect 
and  personal ;  by  example,  by  a  word  here  and  there,  and 
by  cautious  and  tactful  suggestion  and  assistance.  To  in- 
terest and  aid  the  janitor,  to  arouse  public  sentiment  among 
fellow-teachers,  to  influence  the  children,  is  a  work  that 
lies  within  the  reach  of  the  woman  who  thoroughly  under- 
stands sanitaiy  principles. 

Mothers  and  Schools.  The  problem  of  reaching  parents, 
and  of  rousing  the  general  public  to  interest  on  the  subject 
of  school  sanitation,  has  not  yet  been  solved.  But  it  will 
be  difficult  to  obtain  better  conditions  until  mothers  realize 
the  vital  importance  of  healthful  conditions  in  the  school- 
room as  well  as  at  home,  and  understand  in  what  these 
conditions  consist. 

School  Committee.  The  quiet,  vigilant,  effective  work 
of  personal  inspection  and  suggestion  which  is  accomplished 
by  women  on  the  school  committee  seems  to  indicate  that, 
when  the  work  of  competent  women  as  public  officials  is 
more  widely  extended,  good  practical  results  may  follow. 
On  local  boards  of  health,  and  as  trustees  of  charitable  and 
penal  institutions,  there  is  much  work  that  is  especially  fitted 
for  women,  and  that  calls  for  intelligent,  practical  knowl- 
edge of  sanitary  facts  and  principles. 

Philanthropic  Work.  The  whole  field  of  philanthropic 
effort  demands  such  knowledge  as  a  prerequisite  for  work 


SANITARY   WORK   FOR   WOMEN.  75 

that  strikes  at  the  very  roots  of  moral  and  social  difficulties. 
The  causes  of  the  centres  of  the  moral  and  physical  disease 
and  impurity  that  exist  in  the  midst  of  us  are  extremely  com- 
plex, and  interwoven  with  the  very  fabric  of  our  civilization. 
Any  deep-reaching  change  must  be  difficult  and  slow,  — 
a  historic  and  social  growth.  The  great  problem  of  the 
distribution  of  wealth  will  not  be  solved  by  any  one  countiy 
or  generation ;  but  the  distribution  of  intelligence  among 
the  poor,  which  enables  them  to  use  the  means  they  have  to 
the  best  advantage,  is  the  especial  opportunity  of  women, 
and  one  step  toward  the  solution  of  the  greater  problem. 

Sanitary  legislation  is  essential,  and  is  making  progress ; 
but  no  great  reform  is  the  work  of  a  day.  In  sanitary  mat- 
ters, more  than  any  other,  personal,  individual  service 
must  go  hand-in-hand  with  legislation  in  order  to  make 
legislation  effective.  The  habits  of  people  must  be  im-  \ 
proved  as  well  as  their  houses.  Temperance  organizations 
have  done  a  great  work,  but  they  will  not  effect  a  truly 
national  and  radical  reform  until  they  strike  at  the  root  of 
the  evil.  Bad  food,  unwholesome  surroundings,  unclean 
habits,  and  foul  air,  are  the  best  friends  of  alcohol. 

It  is  no  longer  necessary  to  defend  and  prove  as  an  abstract 
theory  the  importance  of  health,  the  close  relation  between  % 
bodily  vigor  and  mental  activity  and  soundness,  the  impos- 
sibility, without  health,  of  the  best  work,  or  the  keenest 
pleasure,  or  the  most  completely  poised  and  sustained  char- 
acter. 

Theoretically,  we  respect  the  physical  foundations.  But, 
practically,  we  say,  "  We  will  build  first  our  structure  of 
domestic  duties  and  social  pleasures,  of  intellectual  achieve- 
ment, of  philanthropic  and  church  work,  and  then,  if  we  find 
the  physical  underpinning  a  little  shaky,  we  will  prop  it  up 


76  HOME   SANITATION. 

with  a  tonic  or  a  vacation."  But  the  physical  life  is  no  more  to 
be  established  on  this  confused  and  chaotic  system  than  the 
intellectual  or  the  moral  life.  Health  can  be  secured  only 
by  effort  as  continuous,  as  carefully  adapted,  and  as  system- 
atic as  the  processes  of  physical  life  themselves. 

If,  for  instance,  we  could  save  all  our  breathing  for  the 
year,  and  condense  it  into  the  brief  period  after  the  spring 
cleaning,  spasmodic  effort  would  do  very  well.  But,  until 
the  human  body  can  content  itself  with  an  annual  breathing- 
spell,  the  daily,  hourly,  momently  need  of  pure,  fresh  air 
should  be  respected. 

The  day  is  past  when  sickness  was  held  to  be  a  direct 
interference  of  Providence,  as  retributive  punishment.  Pes- 
tilence, fevers,  and  weakness  are,  indeed,  penalties  for  sin, 
but  it  is  for  the  sin  of  ignorance.  In  this  age  of  scientific 
enlightenment  and  invention  and  wide-spread  information, 
ignorance  of  the  primary  conditions  of  health  and  vigor  is 
unpardonable.  A  knowledge  of  sanitary  principles  should 
be  regarded  as  an  essential  part  of  every  woman's  education, 
and  obedience  to  sanitary  laws  should  be  ranked,  as  it  was 
in  the  Mosaic  Code,  as  a  religious  duty. 


BOOKS    OF    REFERENCE.  77 

LIST   OF   BOOKS   OF   REFERENCE. 


MANUAL  OF  PRACTICAL  HYGIENE.  By  E.  A.  Parkes. 
P.  Blakiston,  Son  &  Co.,  Philadelphia.  $3.  Standard 
authority. 

OUR  HOMES  AND  How  TO  MAKE  THEM  HEALTHY.  Ed- 
ited by  Shirley  Murphy.  Cassell  &  Co.,  London.  $5. 

HANDBOOK  OF  HYGIENE  AND  SANITARY  SCIENCE.  By 
George  Wilson,  M.D.  P.  Blakiston,  Son,  &  Co.,  Phil- 
adelphia.  $2.75. 

How  TO  LIVE,  OR  HEALTH  AND  HEALTHY  HOMES.  By 
George  Wilson,  M.D.  P.  Blakiston,  Son,  &  Co.,  Phil- 
adelphia. A  concise  and  practical  treatise. 

SANITARY  DRAINAGE  OF  HOUSES  AND  TOWNS.  By 
George  E.  Waring,  Jr.  Houghton,  Mifflin,  &  Co., 
Boston.  $2.  With  special  chapters  on  the  dry  con- 
servancy system,  and  methods  of  disposal  of  sewage. 

How  TO  DRAIN  A  HOUSE.  By  G.  E.  Waring,  Jr.  Henry 
Holt  &  Co.,  New  York.  $1.25.  Practical  informa- 
tion for  householders  about  plumbing  apparatus  an.d 
the  construction  of  drains. 

PRINCIPLES  AND  PRACTICE  OF  HOUSE  DRAINAGE.  By 
G.  E.  Waring,  Jr.  Articles  in  the  Century  Magazine 
for  November  and  December,  1884. 

THE  SANITARY  CONDITION  OF  DWELLING-HOUSES  IN 
TOWN  AND  COUNTRY.  By  G.  E.  Waring,  Jr.  Van 
Nostrand  Science  Series,  No.  31.  New  York.  50 
cents. 


78  HOME   SANITATION. 

HOUSE  DRAINAGE  AND  SANITARY  PLUMBING.  By  W.  P. 
Gerhard.  Van  Nostrand,  New  York.  Details  of 
plumbing  and  drainage  described.  1898. 

DWELLING-HOUSES  :  THEIR  SANITARY  CONSTRUCTION 
AND  ARRANGEMENTS.  By  W.  H.  Corfield.  Van 
Nostrand  Science  Series,  No.  50.  50  cents.  Practical 
suggestions  as  to  sanitary  appliances  and  building  ma- 
terials. 

BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE.  By  Theodore  M.  Clark. 
Ticknor  &  Co.,  Boston.  $3.  Especially  valuable  for 
those  who  are  planning  or  building  a  house. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  HOUSE  DRAINAGE.  By  J.  Pickering 
Putnam.  Ticknor  &  Co.,  Boston.  75  cents. 

WOMEN,  PLUMBERS,  AND  DOCTORS.  By  Mrs.  H.  M. 
Plunkett.  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York.  $1.25. 
"  Showing  that  if  women  and  plumbers  do  their  whole 
sanitaiy  duty  there  will  be  comparatively  little  occasion 
for  the  services  of  doctors."  Suggestive  illustrations 
and  statements. 

HOUSE  DRAINAGE  AND  WATER  SERVICE.  By  Jas.  C. 
Bayles.  David  Williams  &  Co.,  New  York.  $3. 
Deals  almost  exclusively  with  subjects  in  which  house- 
holders are  directly  and  immediately  interested. 

HANDBOOK  OF  SANITARY  INFORMATION  FOR  HOUSE- 
HOLDERS. By  Roger  S.  Tracy,  M.D.  D.  Appleton 
&  Co.,  New  York.  50  cents. 

DANGERS  TO  HEALTH.  By  T.  Pridgin  Teale.  J.  &  A. 
Churchill,  London.  $3. 

HEALTHY  HOUSES.  By  Wm.  Eassie.  D.  Appleton  &  Co- 
New  York. 


BOOKS    OF   REFERENCE.  79 

VENTILATION  AND  HEATING.  By  J.  S.  Billings,  M.D., 
The  Engineering  Record,  New  York.  $6.  Giving 
the  general  principles  and  their  practical  application, 
with  descriptions  of  various  appliances. 

WATER  SUPPLY:  CHEMICAL  AND  SANITARY.  By  Wm. 
Ripley  Nichols.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York. 


THE  CHEMISTRY  OF  COOKING  AND  CLEANING.     By  Ellen 

H.  Richards  and  S.  Maria  Elliott.    Home  Science  Pub. 

Co.,  Boston.     $1.00.     1897. 
REPORTS  of  the  Massachusetts,  New  Jersey,  Michigan,  and 

other  State  Boards  of  Health. 
PUBLIC  HEALTH  PROBLEMS.     John  F.  J.  Sykes.     Scrib- 

ners,  New  York.     1892. 
A  MANUAL  OF  PRACTICAL  HYGIENE  FOR  SANITARY  EN- 

GINEERS AND  HEALTH  OFFICERS.     Coplin  &  Bevan. 

P.  Blakiston  &  Co.,  Philadelphia.      1893. 
THE  STORY  OF  THE  BACTERIA  ;  DUST  AND  ITS  DANGERS  ; 

DRINKING   WATER  AND   ICE    SUPPLIES.      All  by  T. 

Mitchell  Prudden.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York. 
OUR  SECRET  FRIENDS  AND  FOES.     P.  F.  Frankland.     E. 

&  J.  B.  Young  &  Co.,  New  York.     1893. 

HOMES    AND    ALL    ABOUT    THEM  |     THE  HOUSE    THAT    JlLL 
BUILT    AFTER   JACK'S    PROVED    A    FAILURE.        Both    by 

E.    C.    Gardner.      W.    F.    Adams   Co.,    Springfield, 

Mass. 
THE  TREATMENT  OF  SEWAGE.  Dr.  C.  Meymott  Tidy. 

Van  Nostrand  Science  Series,  New  York.     1887.     50 

cents. 
PERSONAL  HYGIENE.  Ada  S.  Ballin.  F.  J.  Rebman, 

London.     1894. 


8O  HOME   SANITATION. 

SEWERAGE  AND  LAND  DRAINAGE.  Geo.  E.  Waring. 
D.  Van  Nostrand  Co.  1889. 

GUIDE  TO  SANITARY  HOUSE  INSPECTION.  W.  P.  Ger- 
hard. John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New  York.  1885. 

THE  DISPOSAL  OF  HOUSEHOLD  WASTES.  W.  P.  Ger- 
hard. Van  Nostrand  Science  Series,  New  York. 
1890.  50  cents. 

HINTS  ON  THE  DRAINAGE  AND  SEWERAGE  OF  DWELL- 
INGS. W.  P.  Gerhard.  Comstock,  New  York.  1884. 

THE  STORY  OF  GERM  LIFE.  Prof.  H.  W.  Conn.  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.  1897. 

MANUAL  OF  HYGIENE  AND  SANITATION.  By  Seneca 
Egbert.  Lea  Bros.,  Philadelphia.  1898. 

DISINFECTION  AND  DISINFECTANTS.  Samuel  Rideal. 
Griffin  &  Co.,  London.  1895. 


INDEX. 


Air,  burnt  .         .         .         *  «  <         .....         3& 

Air-chamber       .         .         *  *  .         .         .         .         .         .  37,  3& 

Air,  circulation  of      *         «  *  »         •         •         •         •         •         32 

Air,  ground         .         ,         ,  '  ,  *        .         .         .        10,11,12,72 

Air,  heating  of  .        ,        ,  ,  ,        .....        37 

Air,  importance  of  pure     *  ,  »        .         .         .         .    31,  50,  56 

Air,  moisture  in          ,        %  .«.  .         •         •         •         •         •         40 

Air,  movements  of    ,  .    "»  .  *,-,;  :*"_  >  >»IO:M:-»  ^,\Ai       •         I2> 

Air,  temperature  of    .         .  ,  ,        ,        .        »>  .,-...*        .  35,  38 

Air,  vitiation  of,  by  lights  .  .  «.=  i;i»  -uj;*:;;!'!  .•:,•.•/        •         47 

Artificial  light    ....  ^.:-.^f!>::Ln»  ;  _>~^t  •      »..       •         4^ 

Ash-closet  .       5»,wV<      •  •  •        •        •        •  ,•  -»fi  '  -t.       28 

Bath-room  .         .....         .....  35,  57 

Bed-room    .         .  .  ,    »        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .  34,  56 

Boarding-house  .         .        .         .         .      t  ff        •     ,    ,         ..        .         73 

Boarding-school          .         .         .  ".         .         '.         •         •         73 

Boards  of  Health        ......       ....      »_,.  ,,_;<f      7,9 

Burners,  choice  of     .......         .        .        50 


,  0.»     •'    •    •    ,*,•:.,..•',;•"  ":--.    -54,55 

Ceilings       .....       ^°':J.  •  ''-  -^  -'-r;  •  '  v.":  :  •;  _.  :       54 

Ceiling,  ventilation  of        ....  ...  33,  35 

Cellar         ..         ...         .         .         .         ;         ;     "'-V'    n,  13,  14 

Cellar,  dangers  of  a  visit  to       ....         .V      i         .         n 

Cesspool    .       -.       ;       ;       ;       ;       ;       ;      ;       .    29,  60,  69 

Cistern         .         .         .         .         .         .         ;.'.""     '."       .69,70 

Cleanliness,  sanitary  ....        Y:''V'"  ~.         .65,16 

Closets,  to  be  avoided         .        .        .        y  '•  '    i  -'X:-  -y-;:--  -^.  :'•-  :'t 


82  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Closets,  ventilation  of 34 

Country  house    ..........        59 

Cold-air  box        .  34,  42,  43 

Consumption     .        *        .        *        »        .^     .        «        ,        .10,66 

Dampness  of  soil  and  cellar       .        .        .        .        .        .        .10,11 

Dietary       .         .        .        .        .        ,        .        .        .        .        .        68 

Diphtheria.         .         »       '  .         . 8 

Disease        .         .         .        .        .        .         .        .         .  8,  10,  65 

Disinfection        . 28,  66 

Disinfectants       ..........  66,  67 

Disposal  of  household  wastes 29,  30,  59,  60,61 

Drains 13,  20,  22,  30,  69 

Drainage     .........         8,  15,  59,  64 

Drainage,  examination  of .         .        .         .         .          16,  19,  20,  63,  69 

Drainage,  plan  of 19 

Drainage,  sanitary,  ten  rules  of 17 

Drainage,  three  canons  of  house        ......         16 

Drainage  system        .........         61 

Drainage  system,  illustration  of 18 

Drinking-water,  contamination  of    .         .        .         63,  68,  69,  70,  72 
Dust  and  dusting 12,  43,  53,  55,  56,  57,  63 

Earth-closet 28,  61 

Essentials 10,  16,  33,  37,  52,  59,  63 

Evaporation  of  water  in  traps 23 

Field,  Rogers,  quoted 15 

Filter  ............  64,  70 

Fireplace  for  ventilation    ........        32 

Fixtures,  inspection  of  plumbing       ...          16,  19,  23,  64,  72 

Flush-tank 29,  64 

Fresh-air  inlet     ......         ....         32 

Food 68 

Furnace 37,  38,  42,  43,  45 

Furnace,  care  of         .........        38 

Furnace,  illustrations  of    ........  39,  41 

Furnishing,  sanitary 52~58 

Furniture 55,  56 


INDEX.  83 

PAGB 

Gas-fixtures 46,  50,  51 

Gerhard,  W.  P.,  quoted 10,  19 

Germ  theory  of  disease      ........  53,  65 

Grease-trap         ..........        26 

Health,  two  essentials  of  ........        52 

Heating,  essentials  of         ........  37,  38 

Home,  hygiene  of      .         .         .         .        .         .        .         .         .7,71. 

Home,  essentials  of  a  happy 9 

Hot-air  pipes      . 38; 

House-drain       ..         ;       ..'•'.»         .         .         .         .         .         .         19 

House-drainage,  three  canons  of       ......         16 

House-drainage,  illustration      , 18 

House  inspection       .....        ...         .        .        .         .       9,  63,  64 

Housekeeper  •  ,•  •  .  .  .  t  7,  8,  15,  37,  53,  71,  72 
Housekeeper,  motto  of  .  .  '.  ".  '  .  *  .  .  9 
House,  situation  of  .  .  ,  .  -.  .-.  •*  10,14,59,61 
House,  surroundings  .  .  •  *.  .  -.  .  »  .10,63 

House,  unsanitary      .        .         .        .        .        .        .        .        .          8 

Inspectors  .         .         .        .  .         .'      «        »        .        .-        .  9,  63 

Irrigation,  sub-surface         .  .         .         .         .....  29 

Irrigation,  surface       .         .  .         ....         .         .  61 

Isolation,  person  and  place  ...        .        .        .         .  65 

Kerosene    .        .        .         .        .        .       •.        .        .        .     48,49,50 

Kerosene  lamp 46,  47,  48,  50 

Kerosene  lamp,  explosion  of *         .         49 

Kitchen,  furnishing  of        .         .         .         .         •         •         .  57 

Kitchen  sink       . .30' 

Kitchen  ventilation 36 

Lamp,  kerosene .        .  48,  50 

Light,  vitiation  of  air  by  artificial     .         .         ....         47 

Light,  dangers  of  artificial          .        .        .        .  .        .'46 

Mechanical  trap 24 

Milk .  62,  68 

Open  fires 44 


84  INDEX. 

PAGE 

Over-flow  pipe 23,  27 

Pail  system         ..       „        „       *       *       ..     s^salf^'S  W.       •        28 
Pan-closet  .        ..        „        «        «        *'"••'.'••*        >•       -•        »/.-.!-!»•       25 

Pan-closet,  objections  to 26 

Peppermint  test         ....       •,  "ja'.v  ;•;'.,-'»".       19 

Philanthropic  work V      >«        *        •  74>  75 

Pipes  .         .  19-25,  30,  63,  6j,  68 

Plant-life '.-;.".        .        .        .59,60 

Plumbing    ....  .....      15-27,  72 

•Plumbing,  plan  of 19,  66,  72 

Pot-trap .v        .         24 

Public  schools     . 74 

Putnam,  J.  P.,  quoted        .        . 17 

Radiators    . 37,  45 

Rain  leaders        ..........        27 

Refrigerators 27,  58 

Registers 42,  43 

Rheumatism .10 

Safe  wastes 27 

Sanitary  conditions  maintained         ......          8 

Sanitary  drainage,  rules  of  .        .         .         .         .        .         17 

Sanitary  furnishing 52,  58 

Sanitary  title       . .          9 

Sanitation,  importance  of  knowledge  of   ....      7,  71,  76 
Sanitation,  axiom  of  .........        65 

Sanitation,  certificate  of 9 

School  Committee      .........        74 

Sewerage  and  sewage  disposal  .         .        .17,  29,  30,  59,  60,  68,  69 

"  Sewer  odor" 64 

Silver,  tarnishing  of 14,51 

Sink  spout.         ..........         60 

Situation  of  house      .  .         .         .         .  10,  14,  59,  61 

Siphonage 24 

Soil-pipe 19,  22 

Soil,  character  of 13,14,59,62,63 

Stoves         ...........        44 


INDEX.  8'5 

PAGE 

Summer  resorts 72 

Sunshine  in  rooms     ........     14,  52,  54 

Towels,  separate        .........        65 

Traps 20,  22,  23,  24,  64 

Traps,  evaporation- of  water  in  .....         .         .23 

Traps,  illustration  of  «......."        21 

Typhoid  fever     ..........  8 

Ventilation,  principles  of  .  .         .         .        .         .         .         .  31-33 

Ventilation,  objects  of         .        . 33 

Ventilation,  methods  of     . 34>  35»  36 

Ventilation  of  drain-pipes  •*.....         21 

Ventilation  of  the  kitchen :    ;        36 

Vent-pipe    .         .         .         .  .         .        .         .         t  ^      .         .  24,  25 

Walls          .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .          11,12,54,55,57 

Waste-pipe          .        .        .        , 19,  22,  27 

Water  ....       10,11,16,20,59,63,64,67,68,69,70 

Water-carriage  system ^ 

Water-closet 19,  22,  23,  25,  64 

Water-closets,  essentials  of  sanitary 26 

Water-seal 20,21,22,26 

Water-supply      .         .         .        .         .         .         .          16,63,64,68,72 

Well 59,61,62,64,69 

Welsbach  burner         .........  47,  48 

Windows    .         .         .          ii,  12,  14,  32,32,33,  34,  35,  36,  54*56,64 
Woodwork 23,54,55,56 


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